The Paideia Archive: Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy

An international conference that takes Philosophy Educating Humanity as its theme does well to revisit the liberal arts tradition. Although the liberal arts are most often assimilated to studies brought together as the Humanities, the old usage included the arts which employed artificial languages in mathematics, music, and astronomy, as well as the literature and letters of the various natural languages. The current conflation of liberal education with the humanities does violence to the historical tradition in education, reducing it to fluff in the eyes of tough-minded scientists who know that only numbers deliver objectivity. The liberal arts of the traditional undergraduate curriculum provided the skills to liberate the student's linguistic powers so that he or she could read, speak, and understand natural language in all its functions. To educate human persons to master language is to encourage students to take possession of their natural powers so that they can express themselves, understand what others say, and reason together. The arts of natural language lead to mastery of the mathematical arts which use a language that is no one's mother tongue. Together, the seven arts rid students of the worst enemies of humankind: ignorance and prejudice.

The ideal of critical thinking is a central one in Russell's philosophy, though this is not yet generally recognized in the literature on critical thinking. For Russell, the ideal is embedded in the fabric of philosophy, science, liberalism and rationality, and this paper reconstructs Russell's account, which is scattered throughout numerous papers and books. It appears that he has developed a rich conception, involving a complex set of skills, dispositions and attitudes, which together delineate a virtue which has both intellectual and moral aspects. It is a view which is rooted in Russell's epistemological conviction that knowledge is difficult but not impossible to attain, and in his ethical conviction that freedom and independence in inquiry are vital. Russell's account anticipates many of the insights to be found in the recent critical thinking literature, and his views on critical thinking are of enormous importance in understanding the nature of educational aims. Moreover, it is argued that Russell manages to avoid many of the objections which have been raised against recent accounts. With respect to impartiality, thinking for oneself, the importance of feelings and relational skills, the connection with action, and the problem of generalizability, Russell shows a deep understanding of problems and issues which have been at the forefront of recent debate.

In an age of radical pluralism it is increasingly difficult to affirm and sustain the educational aspirations of Greek paideia (Latin humanitas). The most challenging attacks on these aspirations come from standpoints which share a postmodern attitude of opposition towards inherited cultural ideals, especially those which claim universality. This paper first examines optimistic and pessimistic prospects for the educational heritage of humanitas, concluding that, in the face of cultural disparateness which is increasingly evident in post-Enlightenment cultures, the pessimistic case seems to be more convincing. Recognizing that this gives added impetus to postmodernist standpoints, the second section examines some key features of these, taking as its examples arguments of Lyotard, Foucault and Rorty. I show that the prejudices of the postmodernist arguments are as invidious as the discriminatory assumptions and the neglect of the quality of educational practice in the Western cultural inheritance. Recalling some insights which can be gleaned from the educational practices of Socrates, the last section joins these with findings of contemporary philosophers on the pre-judgements and partiality which are inescapable features of human understanding. This is a reclamation and elucidation of a practical and promising humanitas which does justice to the claims of diversity and universality.

Este trabajo establece una relación entre ética, eticidad y educación. Sobre la base de un humanismo integral, el hombre se comprende como un ser multidimensional. La multiplicidad de dimensiones o expresiones humanas, que se caracterizan por poseer autonomía y universalidad, pueden perfeccionarse mediante una educación integral al evitar distorsiones e inadecuadas sobre valoraciones de éstas. El ser humano es esencialmente personal y comunitario a la vez. Desde esta perspectiva, satisface su naturaleza cuando establece relaciones de sentido con sus congéneres en un marco comunicacional; puesto que, pertenece a su esencia el ser-con-otro, el ser-porotro y el ser-para-otro. De esta forma, compartir, recibir y dar constituye una exigencia ética que lo realiza o finaliza. La educación, por ende, actualiza estas condiciones humanas al implicar con ello valores educativos fundamentales, que deben surgir de la bondad y sabiduría de los educadores y reciprocarse en los educandos. La educación integral realiza la educatividad de educadores y educabilidad de educandos en un proceso de desarrollo interactivo, continuo, crítico y creativo al considerer las dimensiones humanas en una perspectiva holística. La Etica, en cuanto ciencia normativa, regula necesariamente la actividad educacional convirtiendo a la educación en la dimensión perfeccionadora de todas las otras.

The basic conception of Confucius' philosophy is ren, i.e., humanity, while humanity is at the same time the leitmotiv of our epoch. This accounts for why the Confucian idea is close to contemporary readers and why his teaching principles and methods has maintained vitality throughout history. Confucius explained humanity as 'to love the people,' or 'to love the masses extensively.' This led him to provide equal opportunities education and to carry out teaching activities in dialogue with his disciples. The overall development of everyone's potential ability constitutes the most important part of Confucius' notion of humanity. He practiced moral education, intellectual education, physical education and aesthetic education through his 'six artcrafts': 'The wise have no perplexities, the humanists have no worries, the courageous have no fears.' His philosophy originated from his political practice and teaching activity. Based on experience, its principles and methods are pragmatic rather than speculative. Confucius has been honored as a paragon of virtue and learning by Chinese people for thousands of years. The main documents of Confucian philosophy consists in recorded dialogues and discourses with his disciples: The Analects. Thus it may seen that his lectures sent forth an amiable intimacy, and his philosophic discourses were characterized distinctively by an element of feeling.

Decía Aristóteles en la Ética a Nicómaco que "puede verse en los viajes lejanos cuán familiar y amigo es todo hombre para el hombre" en una experiencia contraria a la que Hobbes manifesta cuando asegura que el hombre es un lobo para el hombre. Aristóteles y Hobbes, como vemos en El Vizconde demediado de Calvino, se encuentran siempre presentes en la historia de la humanidad. Por ello es preciso preguntarse qué puede hacer la educación para promover ciudadanos solidarios, preocupados de la suerte de los otros, en vez de individuos egoístas, encerrados en sus intereses propios. En un Congreso de Filosofía, no se trata de analizar estrategias didácticas sino de discutir las bases teóricas de una educación orientada a alcanzar los fines señalados. En este sentido, lo que pretendemos ofrecer es un concepto de ciudadanía a la altura de nuestros tiempos, que están preocupados tanto por los Derechos Humanos como por la solidaridad y la justicia social. La ciudadanía es, antes que cualquier otra cosa, un status jurídico. Todo ciudadano tiene un peculiar conjunto de derechos y libertades. Cuáles sean tales derechos y libertades es algo que reclama urgentemente una reformulación objetiva, que no pretenda-como pide Dahrendorf-esconder turbios intereses. Limitémonos a recordar las diversas generaciones de derechos que se han producido en los últimos dos siglos, a la vez que realizamos dos observaciones. La primera es que no hay derechos y libertades que no estén unidos a deberes y responsabilidades. La segunda es que el status jurídico a que nos referimos es de la persona individual. Hablar de ciudadano significa, efectivamente, dar una supremacía al individuo frente a sus grupos de pertenencia. Ahora bien, una cosa es atribuir la preeminencia al individuo y otra muy distinta creer que sólo el individuo tiene derechos.

The term "teaching" is usually used in the Academy without a clear sense of what is meant, resulting in imprecise and ineffective teaching. The standard lines-that teaching is a matter of applying approved methods, that teaching is mostly a matter of teaching skills-as-means to some career or whatever-are reflective of failure in the Academy, measured in its "defect rate" of around 30 percent. The definition of teaching I sketch-skills adopted from a theoretical foundation, in turn based on a critique-is well founded in the scholarly tradition. Such a definition is, however, challenging to an Academy at the end of an ancien régime.

We argue that there are three basic views of paideia in ancient Greece. After briefly discussing them, we turn our attention to the contemporary situation. We try to show that the dialogical or Socratic view of paideia can contribute toward a deeper understanding of the contemporary problem of multiculturalism.

The regulative ideal of being educated is construed through features associated with the conduct and aspirations of faculty in higher education. These features include autonomy of mind and its presuppositions in self-knowledge and ability to inquire. These features as well cover having the identity of an educated person, implying evaluation of the products of the mind in logic and language, motivation to maintain an education, and the deep convictions and attitudes characteristic of the academic, humanist, and scientist. Finally, these features encompass knowing how to apply professional methods in reading and evaluating professional literature, identifying what is potentially educative, seeking a deepening of values through value inquiry, and the application of values in a constructive manner. However, the most promising motivation is commitment to oneself. Other motivators, such as love of learning and curiosity, will be transitory. Commitment can be to prescriptions based on the features associated with the regulative ideal. These prescriptions would in turn comprise a rudimentary ethics for being educated.

This paper focuses on the connection between play (paidia) and education (paideia) in Plato's Republic. The dialogue presents two opposing pedagogical approaches to the education of political leadership: first, the approach of a Socratic-like lover of wisdom, who seeks to "free" citizens through philosophical play for lives of excellence (arete) and for the application of their leadership skills to the construction of a just society for the public good; and second, the approach of tyrannical sophists who educate and rule in the city by coercive force for private advantage and the enslavement of citizens for a ruler's own personal ends. Plato's Republic aims to show that philosophical "play" is the best pedagogical means to educate a just citizenry and to prepare philosophical leaders to govern.

The paper discloses changes in Russian education from a prospective which focuses on the culturology of education (Krylova 1994, 1995, 1996), a new trend in theories of education that is being constructed upon the established turf of philosophy of education. The culturology of education includes inquiry concerning both cultural values and pedagogical methodologies. It attempts to explain the whole complex of cultural, sociocultural, and multicultural problems in education with reference to principles drawn from both educational theory, and cultural anthropology and philosophy. I argue that the solution to many educational problems will become possible when the educator or researcher utilizes the culturological approach in effective ways.

The socialization of youth is currently in crisis. Education is in crisis across the world. The correlation between socialization and education is a crucial theoretical as well as a practical problem. Schools are the main institution of socialization. Education possesses two different functions: social reproduction and development. The way of life in any concrete society requires stable forms of socialization.

Although Gadamer's study of Greek paideia has been virtually ignored in the scholarly literature, I argue that it is central to his philosophy of education. Gadamer singles out three kinds of paideia: traditional, sophistic and philosophic. Traditional paideia, grounded in an unaware habit or disposition of the soul, was vulnerable when sophistic paideia brought reasoned argument against it. This 'new' paideia originally supported traditional notions of the just and the good with its conscious art of argumentation and pragmatic enhancement of success. But this paideia also undermined conventional morality by arguing that it is only convention, thereby corrupting the youth of Athens by appealing to the untrammeled desire for power. Philosophical paideia takes its bearings from the sophistic as its deepest opponent and counterimage. It turns out, however, that the two are virtually indistinguishable. Both bring thinking to consciousness; both are rhetorical arts; both create confusion; and both are subject to the 'weakness of the logoi.' In the end, the difference between them rests not on distinctions of reason, but the intent of the reasoner. This conflict of paideias is relevant to the situation of education today. Problems of narrow technical perspective and the broadest ideological manipulation are directly traceable to sophistic paideia. Thus, Gadamer points to hermeneutical praxis as 'the heart of all education that wants to teach how to philosophize.'

Although much of current neuroscience literature speaks of the mind-brain, most study of the mind-brain generally remains focused on either the mind (psychology, philosophy or sociology) or the brain (physiology). Neuroscientists continue to be hampered by Cartesian dualism and the divisions it creates. Even when we speak of the mind-brain, our attention tends to revert to either the mind or the brain. A similar problem faced physicists earlier this century during the rise of quantum mechanics. I believe that adopting metaphors from quantum physics can help us overcome the tendency to dichotomize our study of the mind-brain. In this paper, I explore some of these metaphors (such as the participant-observer and wave-particle unity) to help establish a set of sustainable metaphors within which we can unify our interpretations of the mind-brain.

The later Wittgenstein uses children in his philosophical arguments against the traditional views of language. Describing how they learn language is one of his philosophical methods for setting philosophers free from their views and enabling them to see the world in a different way. The purpose of this paper is to explore what features of children he takes advantage of in his arguments, and to show how we can read Wittgenstein in terms of education. Two children in Philosophical Investigations are discussed. The feature of the first child is the qualitative difference from adults. Wittgenstein uses the feature to criticize Augustinian pictures of language which tell us that children learn language by ostensive definition alone. The referential theory of meaning is so strong that philosophers fail to see the qualitative gap and to explain language-learning. The second child appears in an arithmetical instruction. Although he was understood to master counting numbers, he suddenly shows deviant reactions. Wittgenstein argues against the mentalistic idea of understanding by calling attention to the potential otherness of the child. This could happen anytime the child has not learned counting correctly. The two features show that teaching is unlike telling, an activity toward the other who does not understand our explanations. Since we might not understand learners because of otherness, the justification of teaching is a crucial problem that is not properly answered so long as otherness is unrecognized. As long as we ignore otherness, we would not be aware that we might mistreat learners.

The inspiration for this paper comes from the Fiftieth Anniversary of the death of Alfred North Whitehead and the theme of this Congress. In Aims of Education, Whitehead describes the role of freedom and limitation in the educational process. The foundations of these concepts, and important clues to their application, can be found in his general metaphysical framework outlined in Process and Reality. Positive and negative prehensions seem to be the model for freedom and limitation; hence, the latter concept implies the discipline of subjective aim. This analysis supports an interpretation of the mutual complementarity of freedom and discipline, with obvious applications to the educational process.

El presente artículo discute, desde la filosofía política, dos nociones que consideramos centrales en el debate actual sobre la educación superior: la autonomía universitaria y la pertinencia social de la universidad. Ambas nociones pueden, en una primera aproximación, rivalizar entre sí: la autonomía consiste en el libre ejercicio de la enseñanza y de la investigación universitarias, fuera de todo consteñimiento externo vinculado a fines ideológicos, políticos o económicos; a su vez la pertinencia social relaciona a la educación superior con la sociedad planteando la necesidaad de una evaluación externa en términos de expectativas y logros públicos. En este artículo hemos mostrado una reconstrucción conceptual, inspirada en Kant, de la noción de autonomía susceptible de articularse con la noción de pertinencia en un sentido positivo. Para ello nos hemos apoyado en la doble dimensión de la libertad, como ausencia de coerción externa y como legislación. A su vez, la idea de juicio, tomada de Kant, Arendt y Habermas, nos permitió avanzar en el análisis de la evaluación externa y de la pertinencia en un sentido solidario con la responsabilidad pública implicada por la idea política de autonomía. La conclusión alcanzada es que la autonomía y pertinencia social pueden articularse en un concepto de libertad positiva entendida simultáneamente como legislación, juicio y responsabilidad.

John Searle opposes multiculturalism because he views it as part of a movement to undermine the concepts of truth and objectivity in the Western tradition. Richard Rorty disagrees with Searle about the relation between philosophical theories of truth and academic practices, but he is neutral on the issue of multiculturalism. Charles Taylor approaches the issue historically, defending multiculturalism as emerging from one branch of liberal political theory. I argue that the debate over epistemological and political issues has tended to obscure the educational benefits of multiculturalism. A multicultural curriculum works very well in fulfilling the traditional goals of education in philosophy. It can assist the teacher as Socratic "midwife" and "gadfly" in delivering students from their narrow and uncritical opinions and awakening them to a world of intellectual diversity. Thus, multiculturalism is not so much a recent movement as a new name for an old method of teaching.

The lofty ideals of the classical notion of paideia, and the restatement of those principles in 1982 by Mortimer Adler and the 'paideia group' remain an unfulfilled promise in terms of the actualities of public education in the United States. The notion of an educational system for all students built upon a rigorous curriculum manifesting a framework of values to be acted out in the public and democratic forum continues to have great attraction for educators. Indeed, the notion of paideia continues to carry a sense of urgency as it should. However, the actual task of creating systems devoted to these ideals has run headlong into a political labyrinth generated by the conflict between conservative (technical/authoritative) political thought and liberal (teaching/learning theory) application. The political seductiveness of the trend towards 'standardization' currently in vogue throughout the United States (both locally and nationally) works counter to the classroomcentered/teacher-student encounter needed to educate students capable of interacting meaningfully in their social and political world. The use of the 'standard' to teach and to measure students carries the authority of the technical and reinforces the stereotype of intellectual elitism. To bring balance to this conflict and create an apolitical design requires attention to the meditative role of the teacher and the nature of learning.

This paper focuses on the central theme of this conference and discusses how higher education can help us in accomplishing our humanization. It looks at the critical educational theory of Herbert Marcuse, and examines his notion of the dis-alienating power of the aesthetic imagination. In his view, aesthetic education can become the foundation of a re-humanizing critical theory. I question the epistemological underpinnings of Marcuse's educational philosophy and suggest an alternative intellectual framework for interpreting and releasing the emancipatory power of education.