Roczniki Filozoficzne

This paper aims to present an argumentation in favour of the following thesis: psychological conceptions of behaviour (psychoanalysis, behaviourism, rationalistic and ethological conceptions of behaviour in particular) do not possess their own psychological research paradigm.It is shown by means of relevant and, to some extent, methodological analysis that psychologists who study human behaviour, while reflecting on their own research practice, perceive the essence of their cognitive activities as analogical to research procedure and rules of cognitive activities created in the tradition of biological thought. The so-called adaptational formula (FA), which applies to all the above conceptions, testifies to this fact. Thus the conceptions use the darwinian paradigm, taking advantage of the traditional biological research pattern, and display a specific trait of biologism.The above conceptions can be classified on the same basis into definite types of "theories". If the formal reason of respective adaptational theses of a given theory of behaviour is placed within the boundaries of psyche, the conceptions are teleological ones (psychoanalysis and rationalistic conception of behaviour, for example). If, however, the formal reason of adaptational theses lies outside theses boundaries, the conceptions are teleonomical one (behaviourism and ethological conception of behaviour belong here). Moreover, it should be noted that the first type of conception undoubtedly expresses the view of activism of the individual’s personality, its tendency to self-expression, while the other type of conceptions displays the characteristics of passive personality with its submission to the outside influence.This paper is a critical analysis and a such shows the existence of the Darwinian paradigm in the legitimization of the traditional views of psychologists who study human behaviour. Obviously, this approach is insufficient and should be extended and complemented with a positive constructive formulation. This seems possible since psychology is probably provided with its own independent research paradigm which, however, has not become manifest in research practice so far. It is probably contained in the "interactive approach" and thought which include both the outside influence (of culture and environment) and the force of human activity, the expression of personality.It seems, however, that the justification of the above thesis should be provided by psychologists themselves.

An interpretation of some statements of cognitive psychology’s decision approach in the theory of growth of knowledge is undertaken, so the analogy between this variant of cognitive psychology and Kuhn's theory of scientific knowledge was specified. This analogy allowed to propose the analysis of Kuhn's "paradigm" notion in decision terms and opened the possibility of applying of decision theory to historical research on science. It resulted in both: a) new proposals to studying the decision problems in science, and b) interpretation of Bayes' theorem in the theory of growth of knowledge what subsequently allowed to put forward the hypothesis concerning the possibility to research sensory and theoretical aspects in scientific cognition idependently.

An analysis of consciousness is carried out from two points of view: the methodological one and the psychological one. Although both use the same term "consciousness", they speak of different things in fact. Methodologists more often understand consciousness as knowledge: it can be seen in so-called "psychologism" and in humanistic interpretation. Psychologists in turn consider consciousness either as knowledge or as having access to one's own mental processes. This access has not to be direct, as it is suggested by conceptions considering consciousness as implicit theory of causality. The paper presents conditions in which the access to one's own mental processes is direct and in which is indirect, as well as factors determining whether consciousness is valid representation or not. Emerging theory of consciousness departs form common sense, what may be considered as healthy symptom, although it does not per se guarantee validity of the theory.

Different ontological, epistemological and methodological problems concerning dispositional concepts and their objects are now widely discussed in areas of philosophy, methodology of science and psychology. Three general views are presented in this discussion: phenomenalism, realism and rationalism. The problem of dispensability/indispensability of dispositional concepts in science is one of the most important issues. The dispositional concepts seem to be indispensable for contemporary psychology, because functionality is psychology’s main feature.

This paper discusses some methodological aspects of the approach of Magnusson, Endler and others to interactional psychology. In particular, it focuses on the use of the ANOVA model in the investigations carried out by Endler. Having presented the content of the investigative procedure within interactional psychology, the autor has commented on the methodological and statistical solutions introduced by Endler. According to the author, the use of the ANOVA model for a statistical description of data obtained through the "S-R" inventory (the basic research method in interactional psychology) is not appropriate. The following reasons contribute to that conclusion: (a) the selection of an inadequate ANOVA design, (b) making reference to an inadequate ANOVA model. Instead of a three-factor ANOVA design with n = 1, a different ANOVA design with repeated measures on the dependent variable within the scope of two factors should rather be used. Moreover, instead of model II, ANOVA model III should be employed. All that influences the establishment of the dimensions of particular variance components calculated with the method of the analysis of the expected mean squares values, E(MS)). In the final conclusions, the author suggests that the ANOVA model should be given up and a multiple linear regression model with repeated measures on two factors: ’’situations" and "modes of response" should be used in the investigative programme of interactional psychology. Being "nominal", these factors must be pre-coded (with the use of an "orthogonal coding") before they are introduced into the multiple linear regression model.

The work consits of four parts. In the first part we analysed the notion "belief', the terminology connected with it and the features of which it is mode. The authors intended to prepare the tools to carry out a research into that neglected field which requires an interdisciplinary approach. The results of the considerations of logicians direct the attention of psychologists and psychiatrists to different aspects the origin, structure and functions of beliefs.In the second part we offered a model of the formation of beliefs. The function of this model is, first of all, to simplify the reality of human beliefs and to include their relevant psychological elements. Therefore, the model is the map of the problem which allows to find way about these hardly accessible spheres of human psyche. We also tried to show the psychological mechanisms which condition the formation of beliefs and the different factors which cause their modifications, deformations, etc.In the third part we considered the mechanisms of the origin of tendentious errors, especially those concerning perceptive judgements and indirect judgements.In the fourth part we analysed the mechanisms of the correction of tendentious errors and the pathological forms of blocking them, ie we characterized the functioning of the generator of metajudgements. We also offered a blueprint for the empirical studies we are going to carry out.

Scientific psychology has been fouded on the deterministic view of human being. Implicitly or explicitly, human behaviour was assumed to be totally shaped by the environmental and/or biological forces with the little if any agentive role left to the person.Recently, personality and social psychology attempts at incorporating the idea of freedom and self-determination to the scientific study of human behaviour. Psychologists agree now that one cannot understand and predict what people do without referring to the idea of agency, freedom, or personal control.To avoid apparent inconsistency of "free will" with the assumption of determinism (fundamental for scientific approach to reality), psychologists take subjectivistic solution: They ascribe freedom a status of a cognitive construct. Freedom is understood as a subjective representation of one's own ability to choose among behavioural alternatives. In this context, the Author reviews several current theoretical models of perceived (experienced) freedom in social psychology including approaches of Steiner, Mills, Kelley, Harvey, and Kruglanski.This kind of conceptual solution helps psychologists to preserve deterministic view of the world. However even if being illusion, freedom has — according to them - real existence as psychological entity. As it is demonstrated in numerous studies, feelings of freedom or corecion have profound impact on information processing, affective and motivational processes, and behaviour.

This paper proposes that verbal reports should be regarded as both useful and reliable kind of data, particularly when cognitive and decision processes are concerned. Various techniques and procedures for verbal protocol elicitation are presented and their advantages are discussed. Ways of coding and analyzing of these type of data are olso shortly described.

The author discusses the role of self-set goals as motives of action, contrasting them with other models of behaviour: drives, personality factors, environmental influence. Personal goals lead to many activities that cannot be explained by other classic motives.The difficulties and limitations of empirical research in this domain, often reducing it to self-report data are discussed, but the author expresses hope that however the research methodology is far from ideal, the systematic investigations enhance understanding of a rich repertuar of human long lasting actions.

In the beginning of the paper the concept of "sensation" has been analyzed, and then the method of the investigation of sensations, as proposed by Steiner, has been assessed. Steiner proposes to supplement the routine experimental method by collecting self-reports from the part of subjects immediately after the manipulation of stimuli, but before behavioural responses to this manipulation. He makes use then, of which he is not quite aware, of the method of introspection. He means that which in Kreutz's terminology is called question introspection.The author of the paper believes that not only sensations but any states of consciousness should be investigated by means of an improved experimental - introspectional method.

This paper discusses the problem of usefulness of direct methods in studies upon cognitive processes. Some of these methods such as "think aloud" and verbal reports (cocurrent and retrospective) give us important data about strategies and mental processes underlying decision making, risk perception problem solving and clinical judgment. The results of many studies showed that reliability and validity of direct methods are similar to indirect methods and considerably high. Thus these two kinds of methods should be used as equivalent in psychological studies on cognitive processes.

Die Hegelsche Philosophie ist bis heute geheimnisvoll, wobei der Kern des Geheimnisses normalerweise in der Phänomenologie des Geistes gesucht wird. Aber tiefergehende Untersuchungen am gesamten Hegelschen System scheinen von etwas anderem zu zeugen; daß nämlich der Kern in der Wissenschaft der Logik gegründet ist, die die Präsentation einer eigentümlichen Ontologie enthält und als Probe erachtet wird, Gott so darzustellen, wie er in seinem Wesen ist, vor der Schaffung von Natur und vollendetem Geist. Aus vielen Gründen, unter denen die Entwicklung der theoretischen Physik und das Entstehen einer neuen, an Platon angelehnten, Naturphilosophie erwähnt werden muß, erweckt die Wissenschaft der Logik heutzutage neues Interesse. Ihre moderne gegenwärtige Interpretationen unterstreichen das enge Bündnis Hegels mit dem Platonismus und Neuplatonismus, mit den Ideen von Platon, Plotin, Proklos, Meister Eckhart, J. Böhme u.a. Die Dreiheit des Hegelschen Systems bildet Reflexionen der Ansichten von Proklos und des Trinitaris- mus der christlichen Neuplatoniker. Ebenfalls die Konzeption der umkreisenden „Bewegung” der Idee, in welcher Hegel das Bild der Unendlichkeit sowie die Methode einer eigenen spekulativen Philosophie sah, hat ohne Zweifel ihren Stammbaum bei Platon als auch in zahlreichen Beziehungen zur Geschichte des Neuplatonismus. Einen ähnlichen Charakter hat schließlich auch die Hauptidee der Wissenschaft der Logik, die Idee des Werdens, verbunden mit der Dialektik von Sein und Nichts, die schon vor Hegel Nicolaus Cusanus meisterhaft vertrat. Der Platz Hegels ist somit „in via platonica”; hier liegt seine Schuld und hier wird seine enge Verbindung mit der Geschichte des christlichen Gedankens deutlich.

Im Artikel wird das historische, psychologische, epistemologische und methodologische Verständnis der Problematik der wissenschaftlichen Entdeckung diskutiert. Der letzte dieser Gesichtspunkte ist der kontroverseste, was durch die bis vor kurzem einflussreiche Tradition des logischen Empirismus und K. Poppers erklärt wird. Im Zusammenhang damit wurde Stellung genommen zur Opposition der zwei Kontexte (Popper: context of falsification or criticism); danach wurden die Infragestellungen dieser Opposition, die vielgliedrigen Aufteilungen des Forschungsprozesses sowie die Frage der sog. Entdeckungslogik vorgestellt. Bei der Analyse letzterer Frage wurde die Geschichte dieses Problems, die Möglichkeit einer solchen Logik sowie die Konzeption von Peirce-Hanson vorgestellt, die meist den Ausgangspunkt der zeitgenössischen Versuche eines philosophischen Verständnisses der Entdeckungsproblematik bildet. Das letztere Problem wurde insbesondere von einigen Autoren aktualisiert, die das Problem der Entwicklung der empirischen Theorien analysieren. Wenn wir auch nicht über konstituierte Entdeckungstheorien verfügen, kann man doch sagen, dass ein einigermassen adäquates Verständnis dieses komplexen Prozesses von der Berücksichtigung der angegebenen Gesichtspunkte der wissenschaftlichen Entdeckungabhänging sein wird.

Przejście od statycznej do dynamicznej wizji Wszechświata uważane jest za jedną z największych, równą kopernikowskiej, rewolucji naukowych ostatnich lat.Ważny wkład w proces kształtowania się tej rewolucji wniósł znany belgijski kosmolog, ks. J. Lemaitre. Przede wszystkim znalazł on, zupełnie niezależnie od A. Friedmana, niestatyczne rozwiązania Einsteinowskich równań pola i jako pierwszy powiązał jc z ówczesnymi obserwacjami astronomicznymi. Efektem tego był tzw. model Eddingtona-Lemaitre’a. Wkrótce Lemaitre zaproponował model z tzw. osobliwością początkową, co stanowiło następny krok w procesie kształtowania się dynamicznej wizji Wszechświata. Dalszym przejawem tego wkładt była próba fizycznej interpretacji osobliwości i zbudowanie w ramach modelu ekspandującego ogólnej teorii ewolucji Kosmosu. Dało to w efekcie znaną Hipotezę Atomu Pierwotnego, której pewne idee odnaleźć można w tzw. standardowym modelu Wszechświata.Oprócz powyższych zasług Lemaitre’a artykuł ukazuje również genezę idei ekspandującego wszechświata i czynniki, które wpłynęły na jej akceptację w środowisku uczonych.Ważną rolę odegrały tu indywidualne cechy belgijskiego kosmologa, a przede wszystkim umiejętność wiązania badań teoretycznych z obserwacyjnymi i wyciąganie stąd właściwych wniosków. Nie bez znaczenia były również osobiste kontakty twórcy Hipotezy Atomu Pierwotnego zarówno z wiodącymi ośrodkami naukowymi, jak i znanymi uczonymi. Pewien wpływ miała też wyraźna współzależność czasowa w badaniach teoretycznych i obserwacyjnych kosmologii; ostatnie domagały się wyjaśnienia i dlatego propozycje teoretyczne budziły zainteresowanie.Widzimy więc, że proces odchodzenia od statycznej wizji Wszechświata do jego obrazu dynamicznego przebiegał zarówno pod wpływem czynników wyraźnie naukowych, jak i pozanaukowych, związanych ze środowiskiem uczonych oraz czasową współzależnością badań.

Peculiar features of the theory of probability which distinguish it from other branches of mathematics are briefly discussed. Ordinarily, mathematics is applied to the real world by constructing mathematical models of a given relaity domain, and this is a task of theoretical physics. In the theory of probability, on the other hand, an interpretation, referring it to real situations, is so natural that usually it is considered to be a part of the theory itself. The surprising property of nature that the relative frequency of an event in long experiment series seems to tend to a definie value is called the frequency stability. Owing to this property probabilistic models successfully describe the reality. Probabilistic measures on functional spaces and their application to quantum mechanics are briefly commented upon.

In der Arbeit werden die stetigen Raum- und Zeitsymmetrien, d.h. die Einheitlichkeit von Raum und Zeit und der isotrope Charakter des Raumes sowie die sog. Invarianzprinzipien, die durch die Unveränderlichkeit einer bestimmten physikalischen Theorie gegenüber diesen Symmetrien geschaffen werden (§1), und die Skizze eines Beweises des Noether-Theorems für die klassisehe Mechanik (§ 2) besprochen. Der dritte Paragraph ist methodologischen Bemerkungen zur physikalischen Interpretation des Noether-Theorems, der Stichhaltigkeit einer Applikation des Theorems in der Physik (am Beispiel der klassischen Elektrodynamik), seiner Svstemhaftigkeit sowie des Anwendbarkeitsbereiches der gestützt auf dieses Theorem begründeten Erhaltungsprinzip ien gewidmet. Bei der Gelegenheit wird die Frage der Geschlossenheit und Nichtgeschlossenheü der Zeit sowie des Zeit-Raumes im Kontext des Noether-Theorems und seines Quantenanalogons diskutiert.

In der Arbeit wird die Theorie der Lösung von Algebraphen vorgestellt. Präsentiert werden verschiedene Methoden der Lösung von Lösungsgleichungen (Methode des Proportionalitätskoeffizienten, erste und zweite Teilermethode), die zum Bau von Zahlenfiguren unumgänglich sind. Unter Verwendung des Vierersystems des Zählens wurde die Zahl der verschiedenen Zahlenfiguren der Dimension 3x3 bestimmt. Die theoretischen Erörterungen werden durch zahlreiche Beispiele illustriert.