Roczniki Filozoficzne

The following article is a report from empirical tests concerning the relation between self-image and the intensity of religious attitudes. The tests attempted to answer the following questions: 1) is there a link between a realistic self-image and religious attitudes; 2) is there a link between an idealistic self-image and religious attitudes; 3) is there a link between the level of self-acceptance and the degree of intensity of religious attitudes.To test the intensity of religious attitudes a Scale of Attitudes developed by the author was used; to test self-image. H. G. Gough's and A. B. Heilbrune'sThe Adjective Check List (A. C. L.) was used. Utilizing these methods, 130 subjects were tested, being seperated into three groups: A - having a highly intensive, positive, religious attitude (N=30); B - having a low-intensity religious attitude (N=30); and C - having a highly-intensive negative religious attitude (N=20). The subjects tested possess a higher education in the humanistic area (52 %) and the natural sciences (48 %). The ages of the subjects tested range from 21 to 30 years of age.The analysis of results showed the link between religious attitudes and the three dimensions of self-image tested: realistic self-image, ideal self-image, and level of self-acceptance. Within the scope of realistic self-image, respective groups are. to a large degree, evaluated analogously. In a scale of 24, by which the subjects are evaluated, essential statistical differences in evalution did not at all appear between groups B and C: in two cases (Adj. Def). differences appeared between groups A and B; and in 4 scales (Adj. Aut. Agg, Def). representatives of groups A and C.; variously evaluated themselves. Recorded differences allow us to infer that representatives of group A (especially women), perceive in their own personality: lesser self-reliance; proclivity toward anonymity, lesser spontaneity (Exh), lesser inclination toward competition (Dorn), greater submissiveness, a more critical attitude toward self, together with a certain uneasiness when dealing with the world.Representatives of group B (especially women) are more egocentric, colder tow ard their responsibilities, strongly experiencing contact with new situations; they are not strangers to oportunism when contacting other people (Exh); they are more independent, more inclined toward rivabry and aggression. Finally, representatives of group C are more independent in relation to social expectations, as well as, to values and norms of their environment; they are more decisive in their action (Aut), with inclinations toward directing and leading others (Dorn); they arc more inclined toward rivabry, offensiveness, even with traits of aggression, and a greater distance in regard to their environment (Adj).Significant differences between groups of subjects were noted in the idealistic self-image category. On a scale of 24, significant statistical differences were noted: between groups A and C in 10 scales, between groups A and B in 12 scales, as w'ell as. between groups C and B in 3 scales. Analyzing the above differences, it is possible to grasp the following tendencies to change, in self-images, revealed by respective groups.Representatives of group A distinctly prefer such traits as: serenity, caution with regard to contacts with the environment and with regard to approaching new problems (No). They would like to be appraised as more dutiful and self-controled (S-Cn). They exhibit a greater need for order, planning (Ord), perseverance, and greater conventionalism (Lab). They desire to be reliable, loyal, and arousing the confidence of their environment (Adj). They would like to be more spontaneous, conciliatory toward others, and in cooperation with their environment.Representatives of group B place in their ideal portrait especially such traits as: self-confidence, decisiveness in striving to achieve a goal (S-Cfd). handiness, interest in self, lesser involvement in the affairs of others (Nur), symptoms of egocentrism even narcissism (Exh), a desire to be more optimistic and have a lively, joyous manner of being.Representatives of group C want to be more resolute, decisive in striving to achieve a selected goal, to be able to undertake risks without fear of failing (No). They like new experiences, changes, and appear to be less tolerant toward that which is ..planned-finished" (Lab). They value intellectual talents and have a passion for their development (Int). They want to be dynamic, and have a wide spectrum of experiences (Cha). They value independence and self-sufficiency coupled with caution. They desire to keep faith in their own worth and talents. They also exhibit inclinations to leadership and domination (Def).Comparing the level of self-acceptance that respective groups exhibit, it appears that representatives of group A exhibit the most self-acceptance, next, representatives of group B, and last, representatives of group C. Believers fully accept themselves within the sphere of traits characteristic for scales: Lab. Agg. Cha, Def, Crs, but least accept themselves in scales:TJnfav. S-Cn, End, Ord. In turn, representatives of group B accept themselves in the scales: No. Lab, Met, Aut. Agg, Cha. and Def. expecting the greatest changes in scales: Unfav. S-Cfd. End, and Stic. Finally, representatives of group C accept themselves in 6 scales: No, Lab. Exh. Aut. Cha. and Def. and have the greatest desire to change their existing picture of self in the sphere of personality traits tested by scales: Df, Fav, Unfav. Ach, Dorn, End, Aff, and Suc.The results of the conducted study conclusively demonstrate, that personality tested within the aspect of the self-image created by an individual, remains in strict relation to an individual's religious stance.

This article is concerned with the problem of the affirmation of life in youth, after attempted suicide. It may seem that attempts of suicide are always related with the lack of understanding the sense of life, with the negation of its value, with the lack of goals and aspirations - the lack of affirming life. The attempt to answer this question is the analysis of given facts from a study of 40 attempted suicide cases. The ages of those studied are between 15 and 25 years old. Among those studied 42. 50 % were males and 57. 50 % were females. With regards to education, the group was not homogeneous. 70 % had secondary schooling, 17 50 % had higher and incomplete higher education, and 12. 50 % registered primary shooling. All patients were tested according to the Purpose of Life Test (PLT) developed by.L. Crumbough and L. Macholik. The tests were administered at a hospital, possibly within a short time after the attempted suicide. The results obtained in Section I of the test, vacillate within the bounds of 42-128 points, with a medium of M = 90. 65 and a = 18.82. Comparing them with American norms we find that 42.50 % of those tested have a strong feeling of the sense of life, while 57.50 % of the patients have in varying degrees lost this sense. For most of those tested, the negation of life is not very strong, and concerns only certain aspects of life. Further analyses of the collected material indicate, the possession of numerous goals and aspirations by the tested people. 70 % of the attempted suicide cases see chances for finding their place in life, have destinet goals, plans and aspirations. Only 7. 50 % claim that they have no goals or aspirations. Moreover, most of the tested persons think that their life has sense and is purposeful. Youthful suicide attempts are not always connected with the lack of the affirmation of life, with the lack of concrete goals and aspirations

In existing literature on the sub ject of psychic similarity in marriage and the success of marriage, we find two basic approaches to the problem. According to one, marriage partners are similar (or complement each other in certain traits) and this order of personal traits is the deciding factor for the success of a marriage. The other approach, underlines especially the meaning of the development of personality, and conscious action in this direction. It seems that this approach, up to now, has not been based on emipirical reserarch, and the work here presented attempts to bridge this gap. Summarizing its results, one can say that the problem of psychic similarity of marriage partners and its interdependence with the success of a marriage, cannot be treated as static, but rether dynamic.The tests utilized H. Rorschach’s test of personality projection. Among the tested were: 40 engaged couples and 80 married couples, among those married, 40 couples joined in marriage a short time (2-3 years), and 40 long-term marriages (10-15 years), each of the two groups having 20 successful marriages and 20 unsuccessful ones. Computed were the average indicators of similarity for particular components of Rorschach, as well as, average results within those components, (and the statistical importance of the differences between them), for all tested groups.The results of the tests are not abviously a sufficient base for investigating in this problem, all appearing dynamisms with their numerous conditions. The results, however, clearly indicate the high degree of psychic similarity of married couples, nd changes in the degree of similarity duringthe duration of marital interaction. Engaged couples are more similar to each other than random couples, and married couples are more similar to each other than engaged couples. However, older married couples in their general constitution of traits, are less similar than younger marriages. There is no connection between the general degree of similarity in a married couple and the success of their marriage. The psychic similarity of a married couple has meaning for the success of their marriage only when it concerns positive personality traits: richness in experiencing, maturity of personality, and the tendency to activeness.The choice of a partner is, therefore, important, but not in the sense of,,hitting upon" the right person among many, a person with a similar personality, but rather consideration of the fact whether the candidate for a marriage partner has achieved the appropriate level of psychic maturity and whether he has a tendency toward development. Such an attitude toward this shifts the balance of the matter from a chance selection of an appropriate marriage partner, to a conscious action of an individual in the direction of personal development and development of one’s partner in marriage. Thus an individual is mobilized to undertake responsibility for marital interaction, and for activity in this realm.

The article discuses widely the genesis (or origin) of individual risk and, in abbreviated form, the genesis of group risk. The gradual and directed inquiry relating to the capability of undertaking pure risk (the decision maker knows the utility of results, as well as, the probability of their appearance) is presented in three aspects:1) The quantification of expectation increasing in excellence, leads to the ability of functioning within the sphere of possibility (from about 15 yrs. of age), when an individual realizes that concrete happenings actually existing, are the realization of only some of the possible happenings.2) Depending on the individual history of positive and negative reinforcements, first relations, achieved preferences and relations satisfying between individual needs and objects gratifying them - the formation of the function of utility arises and the hierarchy of values is determined.3) According to the development of the individual (the author takes into account all periods of human life) two relatively independent components of risk - that is, probability and value-become coordinated in a manner increasingly quantified and functional.In problems relating to the genesis of group risk, investigation of the sequence of the following processes seems interesting: group discussion, the formation of emotional bonds between members of the group, difussion of responsibility - reduction,of the fear of failure - increasing the level of the accepted risk.

The purpose of the article was resolved to be tests to determine types of subjective deviations in the course of problem solving, from the ideal informational model (that is from the model constructed, based on Shannon's theory of information).The analysis was based on materials from experimental tests with two groups of students. 1) students from humanistic disciplines. 2) students fiom scientific disciplines. The tests utilized the method of acquiring concepts by solving problems, developed bv J. S. Bruner and his associates (1956).On the basis of results analyzing the informativeness of choices of cards registered in the proceedings of the experiment, the following types of deviations from the ideal course of activity in solving problems were distinguishedI Deviations in the formulation of the entropy of departure of the field of problems.1 ) delay in the formulation of the entropy of departure of the field of problems,2) deviation caused by the restriction of collected hypotheses of departureII. Deviations caused by non-optimal choices:1 ) deviations caused by applymg non-optimal strategies,2) deviations caused by so-called assuring choices.III. Deviations caused by non-optimal survival of signals on information.Analysis of the results also disclosed the following methods of enlarging the degree of asseration in relation to information received formerly by the person tested:1) searching for positive cards (that is - such cards on which the subject expects to receive the answer „yes") after negative choices (that is after choosing cards on which the subject received the answer „no”):2) searching for negativ e cards after choosing the positive;3) assuring oneself alternatively a) negatively-positively-negativcly. b) positively-negatively-positively.Based on the principles of the theory of information, it was possible to distinquish some of the factors conditioning variations from the ideal model a model which, in the real course of the process of communication, is the subject-of the field of problems. Without its criteria, determination of certain types of deviations would be impossible

Based on conducted experimental tests, an answer to the following questions was sought: how children ranging from 8 to 15 years of age, appraise the probability of independent happenings related on the principle of conjunctions, disjunctions, and alternatives. The experiment utilized two devices, whose vibrating indicator could come to rest either on the blue or green field of the dial. The proportion of the blue field to the green field on both devices was equal and in successive situations came to 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 A verbal appraisal as to how often the indicators of both devices come to rest: A) on the blue or green fields, B) one on the green field and the other on the blue, C) at least one on the green field, given in the form of the frequency of 100 trials allows to investigate the correctness of the probability of conjunctions, disjunctions, and alternatives of happenings accomplished by children.The achieved results allow us to conclude that:1) Children overestimate, independently of objective values, the probability of conjunction of independent happenings.2) In the case of the appraisal of probability of disjunction of heterogeneous happenings, deviations from objective values do not demonstrate any uniform regularity.3) The probability of happenings related on the basis of alternatives is consistently undervalued within the scope óf exhibited values (.750, .889, 938).4) The basic cause of difficulty in appraising probability by children in related situations was shown to be the necessity of taking into consideration the complete collection of possible happenings. The diagnostic empoverishment in younger children returned on moments of concentrating their attention on the evaluation of probability, in spite of former partiality toward all possible happenings.

The Rorschach method - a projective personality test - often applied in America, in Poland is relatively little widespread. At the present time, instrumental in spreading its popularity was the publication of the first Polish handbook describing the method, written by Maria Grzywak-Kaczyńska. Basing herself primarily on the works of Zygmunt Piotrowski. M. Grzywak-Kaczyńska supplemented her handbook with temporary Polish norms based on tests of 150 people. The purpose of the above article was to test the utility of temporary Polish norms, as well as to determine a list of Polish popular opinion (up to now. Z. Piotrowski’s American list, based on tests of 200 people, was generally used).240 people (120 women and 120 men) were tested according to the Rorschach method and the arithmetic mean of results was presented seperately for women and men, as well as, the statistical importance of differences between them. Also seperately computed was the average of results for students, comprising 1/3 of those tested. Besides this, based on a study of 500 people, it was determined which opinions are more frequently given by Polish subjects.On the basis of the above presented tests it is possible to say: that ( I ) they reaffirm the utility of existing Polish Rorschach norms: (2) they also indicate the need for further tests, especially regarding such components as: time for one response, the percent of responses determined by form (F), the type of formulation (% W and % D), as well as, discussion of human themes (H + Eld); (3) the tests also point to certain essential statistical differences between men and women. It seems, especially regarding the type of formulation, the relation M : (FM + m) and the pereent H E Hd, it would be proper to establish seperate norms for women and men; (4) they allow' presentation of a Polish list of popular opinion, which could abready be utilized, though further verification would be desired.

"Functionalism” is a complex and ambiguous notion. The author decided to explicate the differentiated content of the notion in the natural-scientific and ethnological fields. In general, functionalism is a direction of studies or an attempt at description and interpretation of facts in terms different from the casual (mechanistic) terms. Functional analysis serves this purpose which brings one to a cognitive grasp of the specific role that the parts play in a system and to a detection of a "deeper” sense of naturalistic, ethnological and other phenomena.Various ways of the use of the functional analysis are presented in the article and the difficulties connected with it are pointed out. At the end of his considerations the author came to the conclusion that functionalism is not a strictly defined and homogenous direction of scientific investigations. Certain positions toward the direction are distinguishable. These authors who suspect a disguised teleology in it hold a negative position toward it. There are distinct associations between the notion of a function and notion of a goal.Still others (e.g. E. Nagel) deny the existence of the two independent directions of the study, that is functionalism and teleology. They hold that teleological thesesare reducible to functional ones.According to W. Stegmüller there are situations in which we cannot give the causal explications of phenomena and therefore we must refer to the explications by means of functional or teleological hypotheses, but the latter are in fact methodological and heuristic rules (Als-ob Betrachtung) and not empirical theses.B. Malinowski belongs to the authors, who are of the opinion, that functional analysis is a useful and fruitful method as it leads to detecting new elements of a system. In his opinion functionalism has certain traits of autonomy.C. H. Hempel deserves special attention and should be situated between the optimistic position declaring functionalism to be an autonomous theory of scientific research, and a sceptic one, holding, that this direction cannot be accepted because of a careless way of thinking and of difficulties involved with empirical verifiability of theses proposed by it.

1. A given space P is a mathematical model of space-time T provided that between P and T a certain isomorphism exists, which maps certain physical constructs on T onto certain mathematical structures on P.2. Macroscopic physical theories assume that space-time is: (1) O-manifold, (2) 4-dimensional, (3) without boundary, (4) orientable, (5) Haus dorff, (6) para- compact. Mathematical definitions of these concepts are given and their physical sense is discussed. Assumption (3) may be considered as a more preacise formulation of the Newtonian view, according to which the space ought to be infinite, or of known Einstein’s saying that the space of the Universe is finite however unbounded.3. The following geometrical structures are defined on Cr-manifold in a natural way (i.e. without the introducing new structures, which are not assumed in the definition of the Cr-manifold): (1) (covariant) vectors, (2) 1-forms, (3) tensors of the type (r, s), (3a) in particular: q-forms — with all algebraic operations suitable for them. In addition, the exterior differentiation operator may be defined for q-forms, and the Lie derivative for tensors.4. Cr-manifold appears to be a rich mathematical structure. According to Newton the space is absolute and Euclidean. In our views the space-time is absolute and Euclidean only locally, not globally: Cr-manifold is locally Euclidean with respect to its topological and differential properties. This feature of space-time manifold has to be considered as its strong absolute (anti-Machian) element.5. An affine connection and a metric may be introduced as the extra structures on Cr-manifold. By means of an affine connection the parallel transport and the Riemann curvature tensor are defined. An affine connection must not by symmetric. Affine connection with torsion appears to be the best natural generalization of the ordinary General Relativity Thèory.The metric tensor and the connection may be introduced as separate structures on Or-manifold. However, given metric on Cr-manifold, there is a unique symmetric connection on the manifold defined by the condition that the covariant derivative of metric tensor must vanish.6. As a mathematical model for space-time we use an equivalenece class of all pair^(M', g') (Cr-manifold M with the metric g) which are equivalent to (M, g). Two pairs are sayd to be equivalent if they are isometric. To ensure that space-time includes all non-singular points we assume that (M, g) is inextendible, i.e. that there is no isometric Cr-imbedding: M → M'.7. The presented model of space-time is common to all relativistic the ories of space-time. In pre-relativistic theories the concept of space-time, although not known by name, played an essential role. Mathematical structure of pre-relativistic space-times has been reconstructed by Trautman.

Theory of formal languages is an youngest branch of contemporary mathematics. The purpose of this paper is to present some kind of algebraic characteristics of the theory of formal languages.Let S be an alphabet. By a word over the alphabet S we mean a finite immediate sequence of letters. The set of all words over the alphabet S is denoting by S+. We define in the set S+ the operation of concatenation. Let a and b are two words over the alphabet S. The concatenation of the words a and b is the following procedure. We construct a new word, which contain all letters of the word a and all letters of the second word b. The operation of concatenation is an associative operation. Therefore the set S+ with the operation of concatenation is a semigroup.By a formal language over the alphabet S we mean any subset of the set S+. Let K and L are the languages over the alphabet S. We may define some set- - theoretical operations on the languages K and L; their sum, intersection, product, the complement, the inversion and the iteration of an language. Thus we obtain here some algebraic constructions. In the special case there are the semigroups.On this way one obtain the possibility of an application of the theory of semigroups to the theory of formal languages. It seems to be an interesting thing. And also this gives, in at least some degree, a reasonable hope to have a background to justify the proposition concerning the hypothesis of the unification of knowledge.

The author attempts to answer the question concerning the connection between Bohm’s conception of causality and those of others. The discrimination of distinct positions both philosophical and physical is done in the aspect of agreement and disagreement points. Out of the philosophical positions the following are taken into consideration: Hume and Mill’s empiricism. Kant’s criticism, acausalism and the rule and classical positions. Out of physical notions of causality: the predictive and objective notions are discussed. This division has several reasons. The first deals with the interpretation of quantum mechanics. Bohm’s interpretation goes along the line of objective notion of causality. The probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics is, instead, a certain realisation of the predictive character of causality, which leads to its negation in microphysics. The exponents of the objective facet (to whom Bohm’s also belongs not denying the predictive value of causality, only refuse to oceept the unverified identification of both these notions.

Zawirski was a pioneer of the probabilistic approach to the many-valued logics. Here are presented in a precise ^ay Zawirski’s ideas concerning the conditions of application of many-valued logics. It has been stressed, that Zawirski had built the system of many-valued logic Z which was to be the system of the quantum mechanics logic. He ’’agreed” the system with the calculus of probabilities meant as a ’’tool” to the empiric studies. In this system the mathematical functions on the sum and product of calculus of probabilities have logic function character. Giving credit to Zawirski trial, the other authors’ ideas concerning the quantum mechanics logic have been presented. It has been -pointed out that any sytuation in microphysics that can be described by many-valued logic can also be described in two-valued logic. The author underlines that Zawirski, in agreeing of the theorems of calculus of propabilities on sum and product with the theorems of his many-valued logic system, has shown a great invention in using the x function. This idea can always be used in the formal logic. It has been presumed, that in the formalization of the reasonings really existent in sciences, the important role can have certain parts of so called "philosophical logics”.

The concept of bioplasma unifies three living processes, namely: the biochemical evolution the molecular evolution, and the bioelectronic evolution, i.e., the development of semiconductive properties of organic compounds. By bioplasma (B-plasma) the author understands the averaged electronic states of a system, i.e., an entirety of electric particles of both signs in a quasi-balance. Bioplasma consists of delocalized electrons, transfer electrons, protons, ions, free radicals and electrons of metabolic processes. Bioplasma is conditioned by electrons of molecular structures and electrons of metabolic processes. In both cases there occurs quantum emission either as biolaser effects of sandwich patterns of biochemical structures or as chemiluminescence photons. Figure 1. The evolution proceeded toward a production of structures with mobile electrons through the selection of semiconductive organic compounds and toward the improvement of metabolic processes. The biochemical, molecular and bioelectronic evolution aimed at the creation of the best ’’plasmo- creative” conditions. Here, electromagnetic information conditioning metabolic and electronic processes is an important evolutionary factor. Figure 2. The evolution of B-plasma is the most essential, fundamental, and developmental part of living matter. Figure 3 and 4.

The natural environment is man’s only environment. Man is organically a part of this environment. Therefore, the problem of the maintenance of healthy and vital societies depends on our possibilities of the preservation of balance in nature and its protection. The traditional methods in the field of ’’protection of nature” have been replaced by the new ones. The most important tasks in this movement are: 1. protection and cultivation of landscape, 2. prevention against the destructive action of natural forces, 3. protection of natural resources. The wasteful exploitation of natural resources (i.e., atmospheric air, water, soil, the world of living creatures, mineral deposits) has often brought about disastrous conseqeunces (e.g. the large desert areas in the Middle East). In the last few decades the rapid growth of industry, transportation and urbanization have led to the destruction of creative forces of nature; therefore the protection of nature became the problem of man’s protection against his inconsiderate economy with natural resources. Fascinated by new technological achievements we forget the fate of future generations.

The paper embraces the presentation and interpretation of G. Matiss’ emergency theory. Stricly, finding an answer to the question: to what extent the theory meets methodol ogival and substantial requirements and how it could be an adequate instrument in genetic explication of qualitatively new objects, new properties and regularities which take place in the evolution of reality. The content of the publication is divided into three parts. The first, of an introductory character, describes the problems involved with emergentism, and points out the genesis and various kinds of studies and their directions. The sketch of the genesis of the problem situates G. Matiss’ approach in the development of the doctrine. The second part, of a presentative character, reveals the way of understanding the emergency and gives an argumentation of this French thinker, both form the animate and unanimate nature, and for its adequateness. The last part, in turn, is an attempt at analysis of the principle on methodological and substantial grounds. The result of this publication is and indication of the usefulness of the emergency principle to the explications of real events, and a revelation of its disadvantages in the form presented by Matiss.