Roczniki Filozoficzne

There has so far been no satisfactory, adequate classification of the laws of nature. The reason for this state is the fact, that there exists such a great abundance of physical phenomena, and that they may be approached from different angles. Unchanging relations between phenomena (that is physical laws) are often treated as undifferentiated statements as regards logic, whereas their logical and semantic structure and other features are indeed very complicated.Because of the very great variety of approaches to the laws of nature in particular empirical sciences, Bunge confines himself to distinguishing certain groups of laws from the point of knowledge and ontology.The author grants the difference between empirical laws in the strict sense, and lawlike statements, and tries to answer the question what conditions lawlike statements should fulfil, if they are to be given the rank of laws. Bunge mentions four essential criteria which enable the acceptance of a large group of statements as laws:1. the condition of bring a posteriori; 2. the condition of general validity in a given aspect.; 3. the possibility of empiric confirmation, and 4. the inclusion of the statement in a certain system (theory).The conditions traditionally mentioned, such as necessity, causality, credibility, simplicity are not necessary in the classification of statements as scientific laws.

The almost explosive progress of modern physics increases to a very great extent our knowledge of matter and energy, of space and time, elucidating many an obscurity. Yet at the same time this development also increases the number of unsolved problems. The text of this article consists, as it were, two themes intertwining with one another. One presents the actual state of the physics of elementary matter particles, and its bonds with one another and with energy. This part of physicis making the quickest progress of all the progresses of other branches. The second theme shows the unsolved problems mentioned above. Here they are: The nature of electricity and magnetism. — Real „elementarness” of the known elementary particles. — The ware-corpuscular nature of matter. — The principle of indeterminacy. — Granularity of electrons. — Structure of the outer shell of nuclei. — The problem of many bodies. — Electrons in the lattices of metals, semiconductors and insulators. — Differences in matter densities, — Equivalence of energy and matter. — The true nature of protons and neutrons. —: Pauli’s Principle. — The true nature of gravitation. — The nature of inner nuclear forces. — The nature of the forces proton-electron in a neutron. — The exponential law of decay. — The nature of difference between particles and antiparticles. — Strange particles. — The very small number of stable kinds of particles. — Why the electrical charges are integer numbers. — The existance of quarks. — Hypothetical aggregations of antimatter. — The overwhelming majority of particles over antiparticles in the Universe. — Original separations of particles from antiparticles.

Science performs different functions: it describes, explains, tests (verifies) hypotheses. It seems that explaining is the fundamental scientific function, and it is connected with the verification (testing) of the hypothesis. In this work the author presents some ideas connected with this problem.The verification or testing of the hypothesis as well as the probabilistic explanation may be expressed in the following way:The probabilistic explanation consists in the educing from the hypothesis H of an explanandum recognized beforehand in a finite number of steps which have a probabilistic value.The verification or testing of the hypothesis H consists in the educing from it of ian a priori not recognized assertainoble fact in a finite number of steps which have a probabilistic value.If in the above mentioned formulations the terms are mutually replaced: verification (testing) of the hypothesis, a priori not recognized, assertainable fact — by the formulations: probabilistic explanation, a priori recognized, explanandum — one of these terms changes into the other and the reverse. This proves that the notions of explanation and testing are dual in relation to each other. Designating the successively corresponding terms by X, Y, Z we shall get the following scheme for both analyzed notions:X consists in educing from hypothesis H the YZ in a finite number of steps which have a probabilistic value.If we really explain something in a probabilistic way, we must, at the same time test the proper hypothesis. If we really test a hypothesis, we simulataneously explain something in a probabilistic way.

The aim of this paper is to present a possible complete list of different formulations aspiring to play the role of the so-called Cosmological Principle (CP) and to discuss their deductive power, the questions connected with the so-called Perfect CP are not treated in the present paper.

In der Abhandlung wird eine selektive Charakteristik von Typen und Funktionen der Modelle dargestellt, die in den Naturwissenschaften, besonders in der Physik angewandt und mehr representativ sind.Im ersten Teil enthält der Beitrag eine Besprechung analogischer, gedanklicher, beschreibender, mechanischer und theoretischer Modelle. Da die von einem neopositivistischen Profil Theoretiker des Naturwissenschaftskreises, haben, im Grunde genommen, die These von Suppes zum Grundsatz gemacht, dass in den Naturwissenschaften derselbe Begriff eines Modells ist, wie in der Mathematik, ist die besondere Aufmerksamkeit auf die letzten gelenkt worden. Unterschiede sind nur in der Gebrauchseinweisung dieses Begriffs zu suchen. Diese Stellung erleutend, sind die Naturwissenschafstheorien in syntaktischen und sematischem Aspekt analysiert, und die spezifischen Merkmale der Modelle solcher Theorien dargestellt worden. Solches Spezifikum kommt besonders beim Interpretationsproblem der aksjomatisierten Naturwissenschaftstheorien heraus. Es wurden verschiedene Formen einer empirischen Interpretation, ihre Bedingungen und Differenzmerkmale im Verhältnis zu einer semantischen Interpretation, dargestellt. Besonders diskutabel ist die empirische, partialle Interpretation. Deshalb sind auch die sehr kontroversen Punkte dieser Interpretation auseinandergesetzt, ohne jedoch enen Standt- punkt zu irgendwelchen von dargestellten Stellungen eingenommen zu haben.Es kommt heraus, dass für den Bedarf der Naturwissenschaftstheorien, eine syntaktisch-semantische Charakteristik, ungenügend ist. Ergänzende Rolle sollen in dieser Beziehung die Analysen der Funktionen spielen, welche die Modelle in einer wissenschaftlichen Forschung haben. Deshalb spricht der zweite Teil der Abhandlung über die Aufgabe der Funktionen eines Modells, die für die deduktiven — und Naturwissenschaften geeignet sind. Die Modellen üben in der Metatheorie der deduktiven Wissenschaften, im Verhältnis zu den apragmatischen Eigenschaften der formalen Systeme denen die Widerspruchsfreicheit, die Selbstständigkeit, die Vollständigkeit und die Vollheit angehören, eine kontrollierende Funktion aus. In der Methodologie der Naturwissenschaften, wird ausserdem die systematisierende (erklärende, prediktive), heuristische, repräsentierende, psychologische und die verifizierende Funktion analysiert.Im letzten Teil dieser Abhandlung wurde ein Versuch über die Teilung verschiedener Gattungen der Modelle angestellt. Die Teilung ist von verschieden, obwohl übereinstimmenden Standpunkten aus gemacht worden.

The author expatiates his own conception of bioplasma, the theory formulated in 1967 which supposes plasma to be the basis of bioenergetic. Life is of an electric nature, its disposing forces are magnetic.1. The ”life of plasma. The semiconductiveness of albumins and tissues has been previously shown. Analogies between semiconductive processes and plasma processes suggest that biologic processes are accompanied by plasma phenomena and may be their basis. In order to ,,live,, plasma must ”die” (the processes of ionization and recombination). This is the basis of the energetics of the plasma. The state of plasma is connected with the binding of energy, that is with the stabilization and destabilization as a result of the release of energy in the recombination. In this way plasma enters energetic dependences with its surroundings. It gathers energy temporarily and loses it in radiation.2. Plasma — semiconductors — ferrites. In this case we are concerned with plasma in a solid body, especially in organic semiconductors. The author pays greater attention to semiconductors which are able to form paramagnetic centres and the reception of mechanic information. Piezoelectric ferrites belong to this group. The analogy becomes more complete because plasma is diamagnetic, it can, however, assume the characteristic features of paramagnetics. It is, besides* piezoelectric. A wave of electric polarization,, spin waves and acoustic waves can be transferred by ferrites. The connection of electric and magnetic, acoustic and thermal, optic and chemical phenomena permits the treatment of ferrites as plasma led in the molecular field of organic compounds.3. Physical plasma i ? biological systems. In living systems there exists a set of conditions for the production of ’’electric symmetry” which is the basis of plasma (the balance of negative and positive particles), and also “magnetic symmetry” in the form of conversions from dia — to paramagnetism (in short ”dia — par”). The basis of the former are either chemical processes with the forming of radicals in an enzymatic way, or radiolysis, ions, hydrogen bridges, hydrating electrons and protons. In the first approach chemical processes may be treated, in mass, as plasma. Magnetic symmetry takes place then thanks to the paramagnetic atoms Fe, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Cu which form complexes with porphyrins, field or, free radicals of a paramagnetic character. There are foundations for the acceptance of plasma in the solid body of an albuminous semiconductor which often has the characteristic features of a ferrite.4. Bioplasma. Biological processes are characterized by the accumulation and release of energy. This constitutes the life of plasma, as has been proved above. The various terminology used in connection with energetic transitions is an approach to the same problem from different points of view:Stabilization — degradation = plasma definitionionization — recombination = ion definitionheating — cooling = thermodynamic definitionreduction — oxygenation = redox definitioncompression — decompression = mechanic definitiondiamagnetism — paramagnetism = magnetic definitionacceptor — donor = semiconductor definitionanagolism — katabolism — biological definitionadsorption — emission — electromagnetic definitionThe radiation of plasma which pertains to its nature as well as the weak luminescence in the scale of the visible spectrum accompanying biological processes are not an accidental coincidence. The processes of accumulating and releasing energy in an independent way, as it is expressed in words, are connected with the emission of photons. This is a moment which has not hitherto been taken into consideration in the metabolism of living systems. The chemical reactions of albuminous semiconductors together with the accompanying phenomena of radiation are life. But these are also the characteristic features of plasma. We shall here call it bioplasma.5. Electromagnetic effects of bioplasma. The radiation of plasma may be an information system both informing the plasma itself, and giving information about its state to its setting. Two types of radiation are to be taken into consideration:a) that of the component elements of plasma (recombinative radiation, brakings and Larmor radiation), andb) the radiation of plasma as a whole (plasma waves and magnetohydrodyna- mic waves).The first kind may be connected with the small degree of biological luminescence. It certainly constitutes the impulse for another act of anabolism after the katabolic disintegration (decomposition). The second kind of radiation is probably the basis of general control of bioplasmic processes in the whole system. The relations between these two types of radiation, which control the processes of differentiation as well as that of biological integration are shown in Fig. 1. The widening of the band has the characteristic features of evolution.The above mentioned kinds of ’’symmetry” of energetic states of bioplasma may be the basis for notation with the help of the system (0) and (1). Bioplasma is an excellent basis for coding information with the help of the system (0) and (1). Plasma and electromagnetic phenomena are the basis of bioenergetics, and the control of its course.

Dans la Constitution Gaudium et Spes on lit que le Concile a tâche de déchiffrer „les signes du temps” parce que la humanité est entrée dans une époque nouvelle du développement qui est caractérisée, entre autres, par une conception évolutive du monde. En égard à cette perspective on est en train de discuter sur le début de l’âme humaine et ces débats concernent les tentatives de changer la manière de regarder sa genèse et les essais de l’incorporer dans le processus général de révolution du monde.La conception traditionelle de la création de l’âme humaine par Dieu du néant, refuse la possibilité du dérivé évolutif de celle-ci de la matière préexistente. Dans l’argumentation traditionelle on souligne que l’âme raisonable également dans son existence et dans son origine ne dépend pas intérieurement de la matière, car celle-ci n’est rien de corporel, mais c’est une substance spirituelle. Aujord’hui cette idée commence à lutter avec la conception évolutive de la genèse de l’âme humaine. La notion évolutive de la création du l’âme humaine ne voit pas deux lignes de création, scil. de la matière et des âmes spirituelles, comme celle traditionelle, mais une ligne du développement du cosmos, notamment de la substance matérielle'à la substance spirituelle. Le point critique et en même temps celui qui permet de distinguer la création dans le sens traditionell et la création dans le sens évolutif c’est le problème de la genèse et non celui de la nature spirituelle et de l’immortalité de l’âme humaine.La base de la différence entre les partisants de la compréhension traditionelle et évolutive de la genèse de l’âme spirituelle c’est le principe préalable du fixisme dans le premier cas et de l’évolutionisme dans le second cas. Tous les arguments d’une part et de l’autre ont une valeur autant qu’on la possèdent les principes premières. D’ou la valeur de la thèse, sur la nécessité de la création immédiate de l’âme humaine sans aucun rapport à la matière antérieure, est basée sur les principes de la philosophie fixistique de l’invariabilité d’espèces, et non sur l’analyse des essences matérielles et spirituelles mêmes. Le fixisme eclue la naissance évolutive des espèces, d’où il exclue la genèse évolutive de l’âme humaine.Sur la base des principes évolutives, la genèse de l’âme humaine de l’étoffe matérielle antérieure on peut considérer comme une élévation, ou bien une transformation par une intervention spéciale de Dieu, d’une partie de la couche espace- -temporelle au niveau de la couche éternell-immanente.Eu égard à la transformation de la couche matérielle en spirituelle, nous pouvons parler d’une véritable intervention créatrice de Dieu, par contre, eu égard à la transformation de l’étoffe matérielle en spirituelle, de la genèse évolutive de l’âme humaine. De cette manière l’âme humaine serait liée génétiquement avec l’étoffe matérielle, cependant, sa nature dépasserait complètement le niveau d’issue, le terme a quo, étant d’une nature spirituelle. Cette idée évolutive de la genèse de l’âme humaine ne détruira pas, mais élargira le dépôt philosophique traditionel.

In the course of my further investigations on the influence of mercury iones and that of light on green plants, the influence of these two factors on morphology and the size of chloroplasts was investigated. The investigations were carried out on duckweed Lemna perpusilla Torrey (species 6609). The behaviour of chloroplasts under the direct influence, and consequent effects of mercury iones were analyzed. It was found, as a result of the investigations that mercury iones check the process of shrinking of the plastids in darkness. Large quantities of iones Hg++ cause the agglutination of chloroplasts in darkness only in certain parenchymal cells. Mercury iones increase their toxicity in light. In older cells, situated farther from the meristem, they cause complete chlorosis of the plastids. In other cells, which are nearer the middle segment they cause the quick agglutination of chloroplasts, and in the following period, with the concentration Hg Cl2 1 X 10“8 M/l they cause the blistering of plastids. Blistered chloroplasts reassume their original forms as the mercury iones are diffused out of the cells.

The problem of the autonomy of biology is the focus of interest of the contemporary philosophy of this science. The question is whether the language of the physical science is adequate to express complete knowledge of the biotic system, or if it is necessary to avail oneself of a quantitative means of expressing concepts. An increasing number of biologists and theoreticians of biological knowledge declare themselves in favour of the latter solution, in spite of strong opposition on the part of the adherents of the traditional, reductive point of view. Formulating the matter from the negative aspect, such a notion may be considered right if it can be demonstrated that biologic theories are not to be reduced to the physical. Dealing with this subject the author first discusses the notion and conditions of reduction and its occurrence in contemporary méthodologie littérature. Then discussing the question of a suitable interpretation of the reductional thesis in biology, he suggests that it should be understood as a statement of the possibility of reducing the language of theory which describes an “organized complexity” (organizm) to the language of theories which describe either an “organized simplicity” (an inanimate object) or a ’’chaotic complexity” (statistic mass). In conclusion the author analyses the causes which make it difficult to realize the reductional program in biology. They are connected with the fact that it is impossible, in the present state of knowledge about life to fulfill all the formal and not formal conditions of this reduction.

In natural science there is a problem connected with the use of notions of the teleological type. It is impossible to decide, while remaining in the sphere of biological considerations, whether reality which should be interpreted in its final aspect, corresponds with such notions as “organized system”, “directed process”, “profitable behaviour of the organism”, “well ordered whole” etc. It is a question of problems of ontological finality, and not only one of methodology. The Thomist philosophy attempts such an interpretation. Polish Neothomists have been writing on this subject during the last 25 years. Three different points of view can be distinguished in this matter depending on the evaluation of the principle of purposefulness: Omne agens agit propter finem (All that acts, acts to a purpose) Thus:1. The principle is of universal value; 2. It can be referred to the biocosmos only: 3. It can only be applied when God’s existence is known a priori.The discussion of these three points of view will be the subject of a separate paper. In the present article the mechanism of concepts in the field of teleology has been presented. Such notions as action, nature, cause, aim, the cause of aim, the principle of purposefulness have been discussed in the formulation of the authors of the three above mentioned points of view.