Roczniki Filozoficzne

The author confronts mechanism with finality in respect of essence and form. Mechanism as a philosophical trend ought to be differenciated from classic mechanics originated by Newton. The latter is a deterministic theory employing mechanistic models (systems) and assuming that essential properties of a physical system such as position and momentum can be determined simultaneously and with required accuracy. The mechanistic determination is the exact determination of the consequent by the antecedent, and it permits to predict unmistakably the future evolution of a system as well as reconstruct its past behaviour.According to mechanists both animate and inanimate nature in their micro- as well as macro-physical structure obeyed mechanistic laws which themselves constituted a tool sufficient to solve any mysteries of the world. The mechanistic construction of the physical world was shaken first by quantum mechanics, and subsequently by rapidly developing biology. The problem of teleology has reappeared, particularly in biological sciences.Finality, often identified with teleology constitutes a complex and extremely controversial notion. It can denote either (1) characteristic features, especially of highly organized biological systems (structures), or (2) research and explication methods applied to biological phenomena, and finally (3) interpretations and theories of the reality.The confrontation suggests the following conclusions : (a) structures and changes occuring in living organisms are not completely réductible to mechanistic categories (notions) and explicable solely by means of their physical and chemical properties. Particular features of evolution of living systems such as direction of their activity, powers of adapting, plastic, self-regulating and other abilities demand new additional premises of explication; (b) at the formal level, the author following A. Grünbaum and N. Rescher has compared possibly different versions (varieties) of mechanism and finality. The advantage of such a confrontation and reduction of attitudes consists in considering the whole range (series) of mechanistic and teleological conceptions instead of a single causal and mechanistic point of view. It results in a more complete picture of interrelationships of mechanism and finality.

The article discusses briefly a vectorial model of the inertial field suggested by D. W. Sciama in 1953 („Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society” 113:1953 pp. 34-42). In constructing the model the author was inspired by the doctrine of Berkeley-Mach : inertia ought not to be measured in relation to absolute space, but in relation to masses filling the Universe. The model is of an approximate character. It is assumed that (1) the space is a Minkowski space, (2) the gravitational potential is a vectorial quantity (3) equations of the gravitational field formally assume a shape of Maxwell’s equations. On the analogy of electromagnetic induction one could speak within Sciama’s model of inducing inertia in a test particle by the remaining masses in the Universe. According to Sciama this proves the „machian” character of his model. One should notice, however, that in sourceless space Maxwell’s equations change into d’Alembert’s equations describing propagation of sourceless electromagnetic, or in Sciama’s version gravitoelectro- magnetic interactions. This constitutes the discrediting anti-machian property of the vectorial model of the inertial field. Development of ideas connected with the programme of realizing Mach’s principle, and springing from Sciama’s model is sketched at the end of the article. These are works of Lynden-Bell, Altshuler, Waylen, Gilman and Sciama himself.

The article discusses three conceptions referring to the pragmatic aspect of information. Their authors are E. Kofler, M. M. Bongard and A. A. Charkiewicz.Kofler’s proposal différenciâtes static, dynamic, particular and general values of information. It can be employed in the theory of planning and management.Bongard’s proposal permits to estimate the value of the given piece of information in relation to its recipient.Charkiewicz’s proposal can be employed to estimate the value of information in diverse cases where anxiety to attain certain actual goal is present. This may be e.g., a project involving a new vaccine, a criminal investigation, shooting at a moing target, a game of cards, etc.It has been shown that the above conceptions are embraced by the general system of teleological conceptions.Each of the presented conceptions permits the information value to receive arbitrary numbers, that is both positive and negative numbers, as well as number zero. Charkiewicz’s conception suggests a simple formula for calculating the information value. It is analogous to the formula for the quantity of information. It measures the value of information in units of the ammount of information.Charkiewicz’s conception has been discussed in a more detailed manner. The existing connections of the conception and the intuitive understanding of the information value have been shown together with the relations linking the theory of the information value with Hartley-Shannon’s theory of the ammount of information.The presented suggestions are valid for certain segments of the pragmatic aspect of information. The problem of constructing a complete theory of the information value, however, remains unsolved.

In all cosmological models matter is considered as something „given”. Density, pressure, quantity of barions, etc. are already present in the initial data. Only the steady-state cosmology, owing to the continual creation hypothesis, explains the origin of matter. As it is well known, however, the recent radioastronomical observations, strongly indicate against conclusions from the Bondi-Hoyle theory. In the present paper we are going to show another possible explanation of this strange fact that our world is not entirely empty. The proposed explanation (which has to be treated as a pure possibility only) holds within the frame of orthodox relativistic cosmology. The conservation laws are strongly satisfied.1. DE SITTER WORLD MODELDe Sitter world model (S-model) was of great importance during the early years of development of the relativistic cosmology. The space in this model is flat. The postulate of positive pressures and densities leads to the conclusion that S-world must be empty. In spite of this, the space of the model expands. The metric is stationary and invariant with respect to the displacement in time and simultaneously with respect to the change of the spatial scale. The S-model has no singularity, its temporal duration is unbounded. The S-world is empty and nothingness does not require a „birth” or a „death”.Because of its emptiness, the S-model does not describe our reality; it may be considered as the final state of the cosmic evolution. Indeed, one may show that in every monotonically expanding model, when t -> oo, density tendes to zero, and model asymptotically becomes de Sitterian.2. SINGULITARITY PROBLEMThe backward evolution of the monotonically expanding models leads to the singularity. Theorems of Hawking and others1 seem to indicate that singular, superdense states are inevitable in the cosmic history.Singularity problem may be treated in two different ways: (1) The superdense state of matter is literally the starting point of the cosmic evolution. The future theory (unknown till today) might show that the matter never existed „before” in states of lesser density. It is very probable that the concept of differentiable manifold is not applicable to the superdense states. In such a case the question „what was before?” would appear to be a senseless problem. (2) Before the expansion a contraction took place. Singularity appears when contraction changes into expansion. The following assumptions seem to be reasonable: (a) the same (as today) physical laws were valid during the contraction period; (b) the conrservation laws are satisfied with the respect to two different instants, both suitably distant from the singularity, before and after it.It will be convenient to assume: at the point of singularity t = 0, during the contraction t < 0, in the expansion period t > 0 (t being the cosmic time). In the next section only the possibility (2) will be considered.3. THE SYMMETRICAL WORLD MODELNow we are going to construct a world model accordingly to the following prescription: (i) Take any monotonically expanding model with the initial singularity (model M). When t→∞, the M-model changes into de Sitterian world (S). (ii) Reverse the direction of time in the composed model M->S. Denote the model M with the reverse time arrow by — M, and the model S in the negative time by — S. (iii) Having now two symmetrical models: (1) — M→— S and (2) M→S, piece them together at the singular point (this is not a „smooth joining", in any way). In order to make this possible we must assume (quite separate physical assumption) the symmetry of time with respect to the singular instant.As the result we get the following picture of cosmic history: beginning from the de Sitterian empty state matter gradually appears, i.e. its density increases from emptiness until it reaches infinity at the singular instant, then contraction changes into expansion, density decreases, matter seems gradually to vanish and world becomes de Sitterian again.Having in mind that the contraction in positive time is equal to the expansion in negative time the foregoing picture may be described as following: time is passing in the reversal direction (with respect to its present arrow), universe expands from the de Sitter empty state at the sinqular point time changes its direction, expansion continues up to the de Sitter final state.At the confines of our model the matter asymptotically emerges from the de Sitterian emptiness and asymptotically vanishes in de Sitter empty state again. The following terminology seems to be appropriate: at the extremities of our symmetrical model the matter being respectively „asymptotically created” („the birth of the universe”) and „asymptotically annihilated” („its death”). But we must remember that it is density, not matter, which is asymptotically created resp. annihilated.In the superdense states of matter time must not be homogeneous and therefore the energy conservation law must not hold, but owing to the assumption (2b) (see section 2) the conservation laws (including conservation of energy) are valid during the whole process of cosmic evolution (except perhaps in the vicinity of the singular instant). Especially when matter is asymptotically created and asymptotically annihilated the conservation laws are strongly satisfied.Our symmetrical world is not entirely a Machian model, in which all properties (including the presence of matter) would induce themselves mutually. De Sitterian boundary conditions at both infinities appear to be its absolute, anti- -machian properties.

The article concerns the analysis of some principles governing the division of scientific terms, such as (1) observability (2) conjecture, (3) precision, (4) degree of abstractness, (5) conceptual organization, (6) dependence of the terms upon the theory. The first four criteria (1-4) are put forward by the representatives of logical empiricism while the other two (5-6) are suggested by the exponents of the historical philosophy of science. The article aims at proving that particular principles generate several divisions rather than a single one and according to the employed criterion a given terms either an observational notion or one depending on the theory, or a unobservational notion or one independent of the theory.

La première partie de cet exposé sert à démontrer, que la philosophie peut s’appuyer sur l’expérience scientifique et non seulement sur l’expérience quotidienne. Les résultats des sciences expérimentales peuvent servir de base matérielle aux recherches philosophiques.Dans la seconde partie on adopte les raisonnements réductifs et la méthode des diverses abstractions. Comme matérielle peut servir p.ex. la théorie de l’expansion du monde. La première abstraction physique — c’est l’umivers borné dans le temps, comme l’ensemble des êtres. Nous passons à la considération de la structure antique de l’être. L’être borné dans le temps peut exister ou non exister, donc il est contingent. Cela peut être appliqué à l’univers entier. Donc l’existence de ce monde pourrait s’expliquer par l’existence d’un Etre Premier — Créateur du monde. De cette manière on peut compléter les raisonnements de E. Whittaker.Dans la troisième partie on accomplit une analyse réflexive des analogies dans le monde, des lois physiques et des degrés des êtres. Cela conduit à l’acceptation de la Sagesse Divine qui créa le monde des êtres matériels.Une dissertation nous amène à trouver un type du composé hylemorphique. Comme matière première on adopta les champs des forces. La forme par contre sera liée avec les particules caractéristiques du champ: ainsi avec le champ électromagnétique seront liés les photons, avec le champ nucléaire — les mésons, etc.L’action du Créateur pourrait avoir lieu sur la matière première c’est-à-dire de l’intérieur des êtres.

The article deals with methodologically important problems connected with distinguishing theoretical and observational terms in the language of the theory ofnatural sciences.Part one discusses the problems as formulated by R. Carnap. His conception is connected with the principles of philosophy of logical empiricism. Different definitions of both kinds of terms given by this author are presented. Particular attention is paid to different understanding of the interrelation of the terms — from the position of the so-called logical constructionism, through reduction sentences, to the conception of theoretical terms being given empirical interpretation by the so-called C-postulates.Part two contains critical remarks. Above all it is pointed out that the so-called empirical basis, counter to empiricist’s opinion, is not irrefutable. Carnap’s thesis that the division of terms into theoretical and observational is clear- -cut has been contested as well. A new definition of the observational term different from that of Carnap’s has been attempted together with a different principle of terms, [being made] relative to a particular theory. Also, a more detailed analysis proves that in scientific practice the C-postulates are accepted and employed in a different manner than it was assumed by Carnap.

Stratigraphy of the Łysa Góra anticline (the Holy Cross Mountain, Central Poland) is controversial. Lithologically it is defined as middle and upper Cambrian. The abundant archaeocyathid fauna discovered by the author in 1968-1973 at Łysa Góra, in the strata cropping out at the stretch of ca. 300 metres (fig. 1) sheds new light upon the stratigraphy of this region. The tectonic situation of Łysa Góra permits to infer that the orthoquartzite strata with the fauna were upthrust from an older Cambrian bedrock. The strata are situated between the Cambrian break- -thrust upon Devonian from the south (the Holy Cross dislocation — J. Czarnocki) and the offsetting the upper Cambrian strata with an amplitude of ca. 1,500 metres to the north (H. Tomczyk), as well as two lateral berms (fig. 2). A lower Cambrian cropping out is not out of question. Among the collected material one may probably differenciate Archaeocyathellus sp. (fig. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13) and forms belonging to the class Anthocyatha Okulitch 1943 (Anthomorpha sp.?) (fig. 7, 11, 14). Detailed systematic classification is being worked out.

Works on life do not merely aim at investigation and explanation of essential processes within an organism, but also attempt to define it. The article discusses the definition of life according to which it is a form of existence of protein bodies. The description was first formulated by Engels, and nowadays numerous authors stress its relevance to contemporary achievements of natural sciences. Hence the article basing itself upon methodological and factual data has aimed at investigating whether the definition is adequate as well as satisfying on the scientific and philosophical level. The range of critical remarks has been focused upon determining whether protein substance can constitute a cause of life. It seems that the analysis has proved that the reasons are not sufficient to consider existence of protein bodies as the essence of life; it is not its cause as well, either in the scientific or in the philosophical sense. It is a partial description considering solely one aspect of life. Everything seems to indicate that at the present research stage life should be analysed integrally as it is attempted by philosophical biology.

A sensibilization is a transformed reagent of one-celled organisms living tissues or organisms similarly composed and evoked by their own allergetic agent. In the grouping of allergetic agents are found substances derived from plant, animal, as well as chemotherapeutic agents and other various basic chemical bonds. In an allergetic organism albumins unite, to create their own sets with new properties to which the organism responds with a characteristic reagent. The allergy is acquired actively, or passively and appears either instantly or with a certain delay.Besides allergies, there appear photosensibilizators, which transmit already absorbed energy of a visible light to other parts unable to absorb and initiate or accelerate their reaction. They consist of certain colorful and sometimes colorless substances which alone under light result in a allergetic effect.Notice should be taken of the fact, that the organism itself produces photosensibilizators, to combine the energy of a radiating visible light and to take advartage of the endoenergetic processes.

The phenomenon of luminescent organisms is known from ancient times. Great emphises however, was not placed upon it. It was treated as a litlle meaning chain of metabolic processes, occurring only in a small number of organisms. Meanwhile in the years 1950-69 it became evident that bioluminescence is a common phenomenon. This leads to the assumption that it can tell much about the nature of life, only it must be approached not — as up to now — chemically, but biophisically. For this reason the material basis of life was thoroughly analized. It became apparent, that important organic compounds, subcellular structures, and also whole tissues possess semi-conducting properties. This led to the acceptance of the electromagnetic theory of life. A further generalization of this theory is the plasmatic model of a living system. Finally, in the light of the bioplasmatic theory we can best understand bioluminescence as a photon emission and its common occurrence in life’s processes.