Roczniki Filozoficzne

The research presented in the article was of a descriptive nature and aimed at: (1) identifying situations in which, under the influence of the group, polarization occurred along the risk-caution line, and situations in which the polarization did not take place; (2) discovering whether the polarization depended on the type of decision-making group (male vs. female groups); (3) determining the persistence of polarization after the dissolution of the group, with regard for the relations (caution, invariability, risk) between pre-group (first individual), group and post-group (second individual) decisions; (4) discovering possible groups and individuals that consistently apphed the same methods in solving dilemmas.Polarization was studied by means of the dilemma questionnaire of Kogan and Wallach (1964) as translated and adapted by Zaleski (1978). The subjects were students of the List two forms of secondary school aged 17 to 19. Four hundred groups of three persons were tested, twro hundred of them male and two hundred female, 1200 people in all. The first stage of the research consisted in filling out the questionnaire individually. The second stage involved solving the same dilemmas in the groups, with collective expression of opinion (following a discussion) on a single questionnaire. Finally, the subjects once again made individual decisions.The study has revealed that:(1) There are dilemmas in which there are more risky than cautious groups: I, III, IV, VI, VII, IX; there also are dilemmas with rm re cautious than risky groups: X, XII. Some dilemmas have been identified for which risk-taking is approximately as frequent as caution: II, VIII, X, XI. In all the twelve dilemmas there was a comparatively high percentage of subjects who did not change their individual decisions in the process of group decision-making (from 26 to 40 per cent). This clearly indicates the limited extent of polarization. Many decision-makers do not submit to group influence.(2) There was a pronounced difference between men and women as regards group decisions. Tn women there was a stronger preference for risk-taking than for caution in dilemmas I, IV and VI, in which men exhibited no such tendency. In men, there was a stronger risk-preference in dilemma IX. It is wort noting that in most dilemmas men showed a stronger inclination to persevere in their decisions than women. Men seem to be more resistant to the influence of the group.3) Some groups were found to be extremely cautious, risky or invariable. Among the four hundred groups 22 were extremely risky (10 of these male, 12 female), 30 were extremely cautious (12 male, 18 female) and 26 were invariable (14 male, 12 femaleh This indicates that polarization depends to some extent on the structure or other features of the group rather than on the decision-making situation as such.(4) The results indicate that second individual decisions, following the dissolution of the group, are to a high degree consistent with the earlier group decisions, in particular as regards the dilemmas XII, IX and II, i.e. those of an existential nature, related to preservation of life or other vitally important matters. Less permanent were decisions in matter related to economic, scientific or political achievement, i.e. dilemmas III, X and XI. Four types of relation patterns between individual and group decisions have been found: invariable (about 43 per .cent) — individual decisions after the dissolution of the group are the same as those in the group; recidivist (about 41 per cent) — subjects revert to their original decisions; transitive and counter-group relation patterns were infrequent.(5) Some decision-makers were found in the sample (about 14 per cent) who frequently exhibited the same type of relation pattern in solving most dilemmas. There also was a smaller group (about 8 per cent) of those who even exhibited identical relation patterns in solving different dilemmas. This sheds some light on so-called rigidity in solving different problems as a special personality trait of the decision-makers.The research discussed in the article throws some light on the psychological mechanism of decision-making in everyday life, especially from the point of view of caution and risk.

The research presented here is concerned with the influence of group cohesiveness, communication within the group and the content of decision tasks on the group risk polarization. The hypothesis was put forward that cohesive dyads exhibited a greater risk polarization than non-cohesive ones, and that the direction of the shift was determined mainly by the objective variables of the decision situation. The hypothesis was verified by means of the choice dilemma questionnaire (CDQ) of Kogan and Wallach, which was used to test 100 cohesive dyads and 100 non-cohesive ones. In one half of dyads of each kind the joint decision was reached through discussion, while in the other half decision was reached following written communication of individual chance preferences. The results confirm the hypothesis. It turns out that there is a greater polarization of risk in cohesive groups after written communication, while in the discussion groups there was no difference in risk shift between the two types of dyads. In the absence of bonds between the members of the group and of possibilities of full exchange of information, shifts on the risk scale are insignificant for all the questionnaire items. The direction of polarization is determined by the features of the decision tasks; thus for instance there is stronger polarization in sport tasks than in existential tasks. The relevant features of the tasks yielding strong and weak polarization are pointed out. Risk polarization persists to some extent in post-group individual decisions and its direction is the same as that of group polarization.In the discussion the author proposes an explanation of the mechanism of group risk polarization by indicating its cognitive nature. The role of the interaction of emotional bonds in the group with cognitive processes is emphasized. Emotional bonds facilitate communication within the group and achievement of consensus, while risk changes themselves are the effect of cognitive processes. Ńew information probably causes risk polarization by changing the evaluation of the utility of the decision alternatives and of the magnitude of the risk itself.

Many studies of human perception processes have been conducted recently based on the signal detection theory (SDT), which explains some experimental facts that cannot be accommodated by the classical Fechnerian psychophysics. In the SDT the analysis of perception processes has been enriched with some elements of decision theory, and the notion of stimulus threshold has been substituted by that of reaction threshold, whose value depends on the type of instruction, feedback information, pay-off matrix or other motivational factors. Among the several SDT methods the methods of binary decisions and probability estimate merit special attention. According to the former method, the observer obtains a single value of the reaction threshold ß by applying two reaction categories. According to the latter method, the person tested obtains several values of the reaction threshold ß1=(ß1, ß2, ß3, •••, ßn) simultaneously, by applying more than two reaction categories. In connection with the attempted new interpretation of signals the problem arises whether the perception process itself is continuous, as follows from the assumptions

The article deals with problems of reasoning by analogy, which plays an important compensating role in blind people. So far psychology has investigated the process of solving analogy-based relations in persons without sensory impairment, but no cases of various kinds of sensory deficiencies. Yet, wherever direct understanding of facts or phenomena fails it is substituted by assimiliation based on analogy. In the case of the blind, the similarity of relationships often decides about the entire content of a concept, whose designation is apprehended as a linguistic form and is not given in direct sense experience. The classical proportion scheme of Aristotle was used as the paradigm of experimental investigation. The elements of the proportion A:B=C:X involving identical relations, whether semantic, numerical oi figurai, constituted the test material. The subject population numbered 120 persons: 60 blind children and 60 sighted children. In each group, there were 19 third-form pupils, 21 fifth-form pupils and 20 seventh-form pupils. The investigation of reasoning by analogy showed that the least difficult was the part- -whole relation; next was the relation of opposition, and the most difficult was the cause-effect relation. The reasoning curves for the three relations have similar shapes in blind and sighted subjects of the same age. Yet, certain specific tendencies were observed. In the area of numerical reasoning, the greatest developmental dynamism occurs in the period between the third and the fifth forms. Increasing functions are easier than decreasing functions based on the same principles. Mean indices of analogy solving in the area of geometrical figures yielded a triple curve, the best results being those for the visual perception of the control group, somewhat poorer scores being obtained for the tactual perception of the blind and the poorest results being those for the tactual perception of the sighted. The skill of solving easy systems of figure analogies develops between the fifth and the seventh forms. In general it can be assumed that the apprehension of analogy in the blind results in an adequate compensation of sensory deficiency.

The article deals with the methodological problems involved in the construction of analogies tests based on the scheme a-b: :c-x (a is related to b as c is related to what?). At the outset the objects and purposes of the tests are analysed. It is pointed out that analogies tests can be used to determine ability level or the level of achievement or knowledge in some area. The construction of tests intended for determining ability creates some special problems which do not arise in the construction of the other types of tests. Of the existing ability tests based on the analogy paradigm, some tests of intellectual and motor ability ought to be taken into consideration. It is emphasized that in constructing analogies tests one has to take into account not only the type of ability tested but also the psychological theory of the ability and the results of experimental studies of reasoning by analogy in situations based on the paradigm of the analogies test. Moreover, in constructing tests of reasoning by analogy intended for use with children and adolescents one has to consider the developmental regularities of reasoning by analogy as determined experimentally. Prior to constructing such tests one has to know the answer to the question of when the ability develops to reason by analogy on the basis of the particular relation categories that are at the base of the analogy relationships. It is only possible to establish such developmental regularities by means of experiments that will determine the level of difficulty of particular relation categories for consecutive age groups. That will provide the basis for plotting the relevant developmental curves.

The article, based on the literature and the author’s own reflections, belongs to the current of cognitive-developmental conceptions of moral development. The structure of morality evolves by means of manifold transmission of principles of conduct. One can distinguish within it relatively independent subjective and objective areas, and also elementary structures as indices of morality (for instance, the sense of guilt). The author gives a general presentation of several conceptions of dividing moral development into periods and stages and discusses in more detail the conception of L. Kohlberg. After a psychological analysis and moral classification of some behaviours of the child, he discusses the factors conditioning moral development, v.g. the psychobiological maturity of the organism, the family and extra-family environment, three sets of techniques of moral development and own activity. He stresses in conclusion that in the highest forms of commitment (religion, love) man transcends morality and submits to its restrictions freely and spontaneously.

Working on the assumption that psychological needs are at the hase of mechanisms controlling human behaviour the authors point to some consequences of the lack of satisfaction of basic needs in miners. Theoretical analyses are supported with the results of preliminary investigations of some psychological needs (the need for affiliation, security, development, recognition). The investigation was carried out by means of a test interview based on preference principles. The data obtained made it possible to establish a hierarchy of the needs studied, their intensity and directions of need satisfaction. The interviews also provided data enabling the authors to hypothesize about the level of satisfaction of particular needs. Basing on the analyses some general postulates were put forward to provide material for analysis and discussion for the competent administrative and social bodies.

The article presents some theoretical and methodological problems of investigating attitudes towards death, i.e., thanatological attitudes (thanatos — death; logos — science, knowledge).Death is a complex phenomenon. One can speak of psychological death and of the psychology of death. Psychological death can take the following forms: thanatomimesis, phenomenological death, social death. From the point of view of psychology death is interpreted as a certain type of interpersonal relation, a context in which information is transmitted. There are as many kinds of death and attitudes related to it as there are ideas, situations, answers and perspectives available to man.Man’s attitude towards death is dominated by fear. Modern man suppresses the problem of death and this leads to neurotic disturbances. Death is ambivalent, but when it is made meaningful it becomes something positive.The attitude towards death depends on: individual developmental experience, cultural con. text, Weltanschauung, current personal circumstances, resistance to stressful situations, level of danger to one’s life.In early investigations of attitudes towards death only the dimension of fear was taken into account. Many different aspects are being investigated now. For the psychology of death to develop more fully, connections ought to be studied between certain aspects of personality (value preferences, awareness of sense of life, religiousness, level of anxiety, self-acceptance, attitude to time) and attitude towards death. The author’s experimental research has revealed that it is necessary to distinguish at least two aspects in the thanatological attitude: attitude towards one’s own death and attitude towards the death of a close person.

Within the humanistic current of modern psychology the school of Rogers is distinguished by its practical approach. It suggests concrete modes of action that effectively improve human relations. T. Gordon applies Rogers’ principles for the purpose of forming positive attitudes among members of the family. In particular, he demonstrates a method of solving conflicts between parents and children without violence or inordinate concessions so that neither side feels wronged. Gordon shows that only that kind of attitude on the part of the parents stimulates the emotional and Intellectual development and favours the socialization of: children. It is not enough to impart pedagogical knowledge to parents verbally. Group-training is a much more efficacious method of forming the right attitudes and skills.