Roczniki Filozoficzne

Spór Arystotelesa ze starożytnymi fizykalistami przekazany w Fizyce II.8-9 dotyczy roli przyczyny celowej w przyrodzie. W artykule analizowana jest arystotelesowska teoria przyczyn jako szerszy kontekst tego sporu. Przyjmując analogię między naturą a sztuką oraz uznając paradygmatyczny charakter tworzenia artefaktów, autor stara się uzasadnić arystotelesowską teorię przyczyn. Badanajest geneza artefaktów z punktu widzenia tych aspektów teorii Arystotelesa, które są wyróżnione w jego wyjaśnieniu naturalnego powstawania. Omawia się zasadniczy charakter każdej przyczyny, różnice między przyczynami oraz swoistą zbieżność między trzema z nich, komplementarność między przyczyną sprawczą a celową, naturę i rolę pragnienia w procesie powstawania oraz prymat formy. Wprowadza się pojęcie pełnego czasowego przedmiotu (trans-temporal whole). Wskazuje się na konieczność uwzględnienia pełnego przedmiotu - obejmującego cały proces powstawania, wraz z jego źródłem - jako stosowny kontekst dla właściwego rozumienia powstawania. Przedstawia się także rozróżnienie pomiędzy perspektywą obiektywną i subiektywną, którejest szczególnie przydatne w wyjaśnianiu przyczynowości celowej.

This paper depicts the didactic approach of the Commission of National Education (Pol. KEN). It focuses on the educational reforms characteristic of the Age of the Enlightenment. In particular, it shows the specific character of the then philosophy and modern science that gradually liberated itself from the hegemony of philosophy. It pinpoints the spirit of utilitarianism that dominated at that time, and in its methodological aspect policy eclecticism. This attitude was manifested throughout European education, therefore not only in France, which was leading at least in her policy declarations, but especially in the Habsburg monarchy whose education was under centralistic reformation. It was also proper to the then learned culture of the Encyclopaedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, on which the KEN would draw. The European school of linguistic and humanistic studies was enriched by mathematics and natural sciences, whereas a course in philosophy in the spirit of philosophia recentiorum was maintained, at least at the university level. This philosophy assimilated some elements of modern epistemology in a critical manner, especially the accomplishments of modern natural science. Such approach was typical of reformed education in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by religious milieus, especially the Piarists and Jesuits. In the course of time empiristic epistemology became more and more popular and bore fruit in the form of phenomenalism which questioned the pursuit of philosophy maximalistically understood in the form of modern Christian Aristotelianism in the traditional school. Despite criticism of this model of education, the pressure of the so-called long duration (longue durée) accounts for the maintenance of philosophical elements in Enlightenment school, even in natural science, in the form of interpretation that takes advantage of the category of substance and its properties, and even of the conception of animal soul.

The paper depicts the didactic approach of the Commission of National Education (Pol. KEN). It shows curricula policy, textbooks, and didactic practice against the backdrop of reforms characteristic of the then European school. In presenting the reality of learned culture in education managed by the Commission attention is focused on the specific borderline between philosophy and modern science, the areas that many a time diverged from contemporary circumstances.Teaching in the KEN schools undoubtedly belongs to the policy of eclectic intellectual culture of the Enlightenment that seeks to reconciliate the traditional school with modern postulates. This attitude was manifested throughout European education, therefore not only in France, which was leading at least in her policy declarations, but especially in the Habsburg monarchy whose education was under centralistic reformation. It was also proper to the then learned culture of the Encyclopaedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, on which the KEN would directly draw. The KEN schools diverge from the identification real education with a course of philosophy, a fact became more prominent together with the popularisation of empiri- stic epistemology that resulted in phenomenalism; the latter eliminated the approach founded on philosophy in the traditional school, the approach proper to modern Christian Aristotelianism. The European school of linguistic and humanistic studies was enriched by mathematics and natural sciences, whereas a course in philosophy in the spirit of philosophia recentiorum was maintained, at least at the university level. This philosophy assimilated some elements of modern epistemology in a critical manner, especially the accomplishments of modern natural science. Such attitude was also characteristic of the school reformed in the mid-eighteenth century in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, especially by the Piarists and Jesuits. The KEN introduced independent mathematical and natural science subjects, a fact that resulted in limitation of the course of philosophy which in secondary education was reduced to a course in logic and practical ethics, and at universities to natural law with some social, political, and economic references. This resulted in departure from the traditional structure of university, with a propaedeutic faculty of philosophy, where a two-part structure of higher education was constituted in the spirit of physiocratic physical order and moral order. Nevertheless the pressure of the so-called long duration (longue durée) accounts for the maintenance of philosophical elements in Enlightenment school, even in natural science, in the form of interpretation that takes advantage of the category of substance and its properties, and even of the conception of animal soul.

In this paper the author presents the Libertarian Thought in the perspective of its genesis and interpretations. Libertarianism is an young ideological movement focused on rights of an individual (like the right to property). It has the critical attitude towards authority what is expressed in the postulate of radical limitation of its powers (Minarchism) or its dismantling (Anarcho-capitalism). In the approach of minarchists, the state have the only one responsibility: it should supervise on security dimension by management of armed forces, police and judiciary. Anarcho-capitalists claim that the institution of state should be abolished. They recognize the fact that there is no way to reconcile individual liberty and the right to private property within the state — even in situation where state is focused on dimension of security. Radical libertarians with anarcho-capitalist inclination maintain that all powers of the state should be transmitted to the private sector.

In the part three, motivations in the form of pain and pleasure for activity of intelligent autonomous system was discussed. It was also shown, that another kind of motivations in the form of curiosity and understanding instinct is necessary for advanced conscious state formation. Neural substrate for this motivations was indicated. Complex conscious mind model was proposed omnirelevant to all levels of information processing. The model explains major human psyche features. The sources of self-awareness and contemplative consciousness was shown and also described how the sense and goal of existence is formulated. It explains the way how free will can appear and how the mind can work effectively for self-interest and for favor of consciousness embedded in neural modeling fields. It was described how the understanding need and harmony necessity can create the good and another ethic value. How the mind driving emotions can generate empathy and altruism feelings. The model shows, that for all these functions, for learning what is good and moral, the body equipped with both, perception and impact on surrounding is necessary. This is direct evidence that unification of the soul and body is necessary for intentionally moral, self-aware being existence.

Bermudez considers the problem of non-linguistic thoughts on two dimensions: epistemological and explanatory. Epistemological dimension is how it is possible to assign thoughts to the non-linguistic creatures (hereinafter: NC) and whether it is possible to know the content of nonlinguistic thought. To solve this problem Bermudez applied success semantics to NC, which allows to know the contents of beliefs and desires and to use psychological explanation. The explanatory dimension relates to the attribution of thought to NC, which would explain their behavior. For this purpose, Bermudez extends the concept of rationality to NC by highlighting its different levels. In addition, he extracts protologic to show how practical reasoning may be assigned to the NC. The main complaints to his position are related to following factors: the relationship between thinking and reasoning, the methodology which is used by Bermudez and expanded concept of rationality.