Roczniki Filozoficzne

The writer presents some results of extragalactic observations which play or allegedly would play rather important role in cosmology, discussing each of them shortly. First the redshift impying the finite age of the universe; later the isotropy and the general clustering tendency of the population of our neighborhood, and finally the fact, that all galaxies appear in some discrete morfological types, suggesting that their evolution follow different ways depending probably upon the initial mass or age of a given galaxy.Finally two groups of the modern cosmological theories are outlined — the evolutional theories and those of steady state — and the chief ideas concerning their observational testing are presented.

Two kinds of cosmology develope today: the scientific and the philosophical one. This last, dating from the times of Aristotle, arised as a result of Philosophie reflection and current experience. Wherais the scientific cosmology is „a physical theory of the origin, structure and development of the universe as a whole.”The term „universe” is laden with ambiguity. It gets its significance according to the cosmological theory, in whidh it appears. It has another significance in the Newtonian cosmology, and another one in the relativistic cosmology, in Milne’s kinematic relativity, in the steady — state theory, and still another one in the theory of A. Eddington, P. Dirac and Jordan. We must .regard the definition of the term „universe” as a contextual definition.The object of cosmology has a peculiar character, because the universe, which it explores, is one. The unie object of exploration has imposed on the cosmology the method of extrapolation and the axiomatical — deductive method. The first of these methods has not yet been duly elaborated till now.The cosmologists, diverging from the common cosmological principle, give more attention to the exploration of models with a smaller degree of symmetry.At present a greater and greater interest is aroused by the results of the researches in the dommain of the evolution of nebulae and the clusters of nebulae, beceuse these results are closely connected with the evolution of the universe. The future belongs to the exploration of radio stars and quasi-stars. In the focus of attention of the scientists is the problem of cosmologic or uncosmologic provenience of the quasi-stars.A condition of the development of cosmology is the elaboration of the methodology of this scientific branch. The methodologic problems are suibstiancially connected with the physical content of cosmology itself. The lack of precision of conceptions. has an. unfavourable influence upon the construction of cosmologic theories.

1. The most distressing thing about General Relativity is the lack of contacts of the theory with observational or experimental facts. The theory is based upon rather „philosophical” reasons. Such a philosophical reason is first of all the idea of relativity itself. As a precursor of this idea may be considered Copernicus, who has shown that the frame of reference connected with Sun is as good to express the planets’ motions as the frame of reference connected with Earth. According to Newton all mechanical lows have the same form in any inertial frame of reference — this statement is known as the classical principle of relativity. But Newton guessed that only uniform motions have a relative character. The inertial forces appearing in accelerated motions indicate that body moves absolutely in absolute spaceErnest Mach, accordingly to his positivistic views, asserted that — remaining in the ground of facts — one may speak about relative space and relative motions only. Most precise inertial frame of reference is that connected with the centre of all masses in the Universe. We cannot consider the inertial properties of any material body in the reference to any absolute space but only to the all other masses in the universe. The idea of relativity of inertia in nowadays physics is known as a ’’Mach’s principle”.2. The so called ’’Mach’s principle” has not any strictly determined physical sense. In the scientific papers we can find quite different formulations pretending to express Mach’s original ideas. Let us catalogue them.As a least precised postulate may be considered the following:(I) There exists a certain connection between the local dynamics and the structure of the universe as a whole. (B. Bertotti)The postulate (I) is sometimes expressed in the more precise forms demanding connections between the local motion and the distribution of the masses in the universe or between the local motion and the motion considered, by different manners, globally.(II, 1) "Only motion with the respect to material bodies — the word taken in its daily-life sense — has a physical meanning”. (O. Klein)(II, 2) "The local inertial frame is determined by some average of the motion of the distant astronomical objects”. (H. Bondi)(II, 3) The motions equivalent cinematically are equivalent dynamically too. (F. A. E. Pirani)(II, 4) "The local reference frames in which Newton’s laws are approximately valid (without the introduction of Coriolis or centrifugal forces) are those frames which are approximately non-rotating relative to the distant stars”. (F. A. E. Pirani)In the next formulations one does not speak of motions and inertial frames but rather directly of inertia.(III, 1) The magnitude of the inertia of the test body depends on the masses of the universe and their distribution.(III, 2) "The magnitude of the inertia of the test body is entirely determined by the masses of the universe and by their distribution”. (H. Bondi)(III, 2a) "The geometry of spacetime and therefore the inertial properties of every infinitesimal test particle are determined by the distribution of energy flow through all space”. (J. A. Wheeler)(III, 3) ”In a consequential theory of relativity there can be no inertia of matter against space but only inertia of matter against matter. If therefore a body is removed sufficiently far from all other masses of the universe its inertia must be reduced to zero”. (A. Einstein)(III, 4) "The bulk matter (or "fixed stars”) of the universe determines the compass of inertia, and the two cannot rotate relative to each other”. (R. Adler, M. Bazin, M. Schiffer)The Mach’s principle is often expressed as a formal prescription of its realization :(IV, 1) "Space devoid of all matter should be devoid of physical structure and the concept of the structure of a physical space should have meaning only when the space contains matter”. (R. H. Dicke)(IV, 2) ”G-field is entirely determined by the masses of bodies. Mass and energy, according to conclusions of special theory of relativity, are essentially equivalent; formally energy is described by the symmetric energy tensor, i.e. G-field is defined and determined by the energy-matter tensor”. (A. Einstein)Demanding that G-field should be determined by the matter and its distribution means:(IV, 3) For the empty space (Tμv = 0) field equations should’nt have any solutions, except the flat (euclidean) ones, or:(IV, 3a) In "the absence of matter spacetime necessarily should be Minkowskian. (F. A. E. Pirani)or:(IV, 4) ”In the absence of matter there should be no geometric structure to spacetime, i.e. with Tμv = 0 there should be no solutions to the field equations”. (A. Trautman)Introducing into the field equations the so called ’’cosmological constant” Einstein was able to show:(IV, 5) (a) that there exists the solution with the uniform density of matter and space so curved that although unbounded it is finite. It abolished infinity where all difficulties with boundary conditions arose;(b) he thought, though mistakenly, that for positive values of cosmological constant field equations have no solutions for T^v = 0.According to primary Einstein’s opinion these two points incorporate Mach’s principle into General Relativity. These Einstein’s suggestions are nowadays sometimes expressed in slightly modified form:(IV, 6) Our real world is described only by these solutions of Einstein’s equa tions which are closed in the spacial dimensions. (S. Bażański, M. Demiański)Mach’s principle is by some authors expressed in very special form concerning the variability of physical constants:(V, 1) The constant of gravitation contains informations about the structure and evolution of the universe, i.e. it changes depending on the distribution of matter in the universe. (H. Bondi)The postulate (V, 1) may be expressed in slightly modified form:(V, 2) The constant of gravitation is really constant, yet inertial mass of the test particle changes depending on the structure and evolution of the universe. (R. H. Dicke)Formulations (V, 1) and (V, 2) are complementary. One may, therefore, postulate jointly (V, 1) and (V,2).(V, 3) All physical constants are determined by the "material content” of the world, i.e. values of all physical constants contain some informations about structure and evolution of the universe.All these formulations of Mach’s idea suggest the following, most maximalistic, postulate:The physical theory should be devoid of any absolute elements. All physical magnitudes (such as: all constants, quantity of different kinds of elementary particles, their masses, charges and so on) should be defined by the ’’material content” of the universe.3. All formulations of Mach’s principle stated above are briefly cleared up and their relation to General Relativity discussed.4. Some theorems (in the text equipped with proofs) concerning the possibility of realization of Mach’s principle:A. Theorems about the differentiable manifoldsTheorem A, 1: The differentiable manifold implies geometrical structure, namely the affine space locally tangent.From this purely geometrical theorem and the assumption that geometrical structure (in this or another way) is equivalent to the physical one — such an assumption is made in General Relativity — results:Th. A, 2: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible geometry based on the concept of differentiable manifold cannot be Machian in the sense of (IV, 1).If one identifies — in any manner — the local inertial frame with the local affine frame of coordinates (and this is a case in General Relativity), then (A, 2) changes into:Th. A, 3: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible geometry based on the concept of differentiable manifold cannot be Machian in the sense of (II, 2).From (A, 3) follows that in the physical theory, of which this theorem is speaking, the local inertial frame cannot be entirely determined by the random motion of distant astronomical objects. The theorem do not exclude that the local inertial frame could be partially determined by something external relative to the concept of differentiable manifold, e.g. by the random motion*of distant stars.Since the motion of the test body can be referred to the local frame in the manifold, (A, 3) takes the form:Th. A, 4: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible geometry based on the concept of differentiable manifold cannot be Machian in the sense of (II, 1).B. Theorems about the Riemannian spaceTheorem B, 1: Riemannian space implies geometrical structure, namely locally tangent (pseudo) euclidean space.From this purely geometrical theorem immediately follows:Th. B, 2: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible Riemannian space cannot be Machian in the sense of (IV, 2).If one assumes that the motion along the geodetic, s,c. free fall, determines the inertial properties of the test particle (such an assumption is made in General Relativity), from (B, 1) one comes to following:Th. B, 3: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible Riemannian space cannot be Machian in the sense of (HI, 2).The physical theory, about which the theorem (B, 3) is speaking, cannot be Machian in the sense of (III, 2), but can be Machian in the sense of (III, 1). As we know General Relativity is Machian precisely in this sense.If inertia of the test body is entirely determined by the masses, of the universe, we will speak about the inertia in reference to masses; if the inertia of the: test body is not entirely determined by the masses of the universe, we will speak about inertia in reference to space. In such a convention theorem (B, 3) changes into:Th. B, 4: A physical theory using for the geometrization of the phenomenon of gravitation any possible Riemannian space cannot be Machian in the sense of (HI, 3).

The man was always interested — and still interested nowadays — in the cosmologic-cosmogonic problematics. He is curious about the framework ol the universe, its structure, its origin etc. The problematic of that kind can be put as well in scientific considerations, as in the philosophical ones. These last considerations constitute the crowning achievement of the ipurely technical and fragmentary investigations of the particular sciences. At the same time however the philosophical thinking which touches the problems concerning the exploring of the universe, cannot out itself ideologically from the achievements obtained by the natural sciences under penalty of falling into the apriorism. Therefore it is an important thing to search the here existing relations and to bring into relief some arising theses.The article represents the contemporary problematic of the scientific cosmogony. It has been thus discussed the problem of the formation of the solar system, the question of the originating of the stars as well as of the chemical elements, otherwise the nucleosynthesis. Attention has been paid to the fact, that the contemporary planetary cosmogony is connected with the stellar cosmogony. One cannot separate the generating of their parent stars. This reacts automatically on the problem of the age of planets in relation to the age of stars. It is nowadays generally accepted in the stellar cosmogony, that the stars originate from the cosmic matter on the way of condensation, cosmogonically interested is the fact of clustering of the matter into stars and not into other material formations as well as the fact of the formation of stars in whole groups, and not singly.The nucleosynthesis, or the generating of nuclei of the atom has also a great philosophical-scientific implication. Thanks to these considerations one can obtain the transfer of the problematic of the generating of elements into the lower layers of the matter, which is both scientifically and philosophically important and interesting. From the consideration relating to the nucleosynthesis a report has been made on the reactions of the „combustion” of hydrogen and the „combustion” of helium. The reaction of the first kind lead to the generating of the nuclei helium from the nuclei of hydrogen, otherwise — protons. They are called in short reactions of the type p-p, as well as C. N. The „combustion” of helium, otherwise the reaction leading from nuclei of helium to the nucleus of coal has been presented in form 3.Natural sciences and the philosophy of nature — this is a very controversial and constantly actual subject. Here has been presented the position of A. G. van Meisen, which seemed to be convenient for the problematic touched in this article. Basing on the so definite standpoint have been discussed from the logical and factual point of view the deficiencies of the reasonings out of the domain of the philosophy of nature and relating to the problematic interrelated with the universe. The cosmogony seems to be so to say the negative norm for philosophical considerations, it warns against the easy and hasty generalizing of conclusions, which is given to us by the current experience.It has been also observed that the traditional conception of contingent being does not seem to be fully adequate. The ideological atmosphere, which is associated with the scientific cosmogony, seems to suggest distincly the introduction of necessary corrections.The genral implication of the article leads to the conviction of the necessity to proclain oneself in favour of the dynamically understood philosophy of nature. Dynamic and development — these shall be the features of the contemporary philosophy of nature.

The task of this article is a systematic approach to problems connected with the deductive explanation, as a particular case of generalizing which problems are actually discussed in the literature of the subject. The deductive explanation is understood in this article, as a function of structural elements of the physical theory (sc. laws of the physics). These problems have been discussed in the following order: 1° The logic structure of the deductive-nomologioal explanation and its different interpretations. 2° Conditioning of such an explanation. These conditions have been arranged according to the manner of denomination of the correspondent deductive explanation, which fuefills a definite group of conditions. And so it has been distinguished: a) a complete explanation, b) a satisfactory explanation, c) an adequate explanation. In turn more representative conditionnings have been put to analysis. 3°. The question of rotation which occurs in these two central functions of the physical theory. 4° Is a deductive explanation, the same as a causal explanation? 5° An attempt to modify the definition of potential explanation, which occurs when we abstract from the qualification of the truth of sentences which enters into the composition of the explanans.

The (phenomena of bioluminiscence, action currents of the muscle and nerve cells, electrostasis, biopotentials by plants, electrophoresis and semiconduction of proteins and nucleic acids constitute the basis of the electromagnetic interpretation of life phenomena. To take the matter methodically the inorganic functional relicts in the present nature of life should be discovered and given a proper explanation. To the archaic features of life, which perhaps had been brought away already from the inorganic start, belong: semiconduction of proteins, absorption of the electromagnetic waves by typical length, extort emission, optical activity. The semi-conductive electronics gives a good approximation of the functionality of living systems. Life is a bisemiconducting system, one of which is inorganic colloid, and the other — water. The basic vibrator constitutes a micromolecule of amphoteric colloid with disposed „electrochemical weight” on both sides of the isoelectric point. The donor-acceptor balance of a molecule changes according to the electronic value of the medium as well as such a balance of the neighbouring molecules. The author is carying out the analysis of a single vibrating system of an amphoteric molecule, and considers it as a micro junction p-n with electronic transfer through the isoelectric point.In the „horizontal” direction (conventionally the direction of the extension of a flat molecule) lies the level of the changes; and square to is the level of the signal (information). This basic electromagnetic situation is valid also for the biological geometry. And consequently will be the distinguished directions of the biophysical evolution. ,a) The evolution in horizontal level is in the first place the extension of the amphoteric molecule, the increase of the electronic antagonisms, the augmentation of the donor-acceptor balance, the growth of the redox potential. This was performed by replacing the inorganic semiconductor by organic compounds. A further stage of evolution was the development of the properties of the semiconducting organic compounds up to the production of ferroelectrics and piezoelectrics.Presently we find properties in proteins, nucleic acids as well as at least some of saccharides. It has been stated that the good properties are shown aromatic compounds, especially by linearly condensed rings. The life has exploited this fact by producing compounds of the tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, porphirin, adenine, uracil a.is.f. The primary functional presumptions have been extended an organic foundations. The biochemical evolution of protoliving formations has been dictated by the increase of semiconducting properties.b) The varying electronic states in the semiconductor (redox, excited centres, singlet and triplet states, voltage-current situations) are revealed by the emission an electromagnetic wave. The evolution of information could not exceed the analogic phenomena in the inorganic semiconductors. The evolution of the signal was conditioned by generating organic semiconductors and minimalizing the electronic inertia. The facility of setting free electrons, their mobility, the quickness of the changes of the donor in the acceptor state and inversely, led to the increase of the frequency of the emitted wave (flinght towards ultraviolet). It follows simultaneously the integration into higher and higher organized units of life (molecules, cells, organs, organism). The integration is performed on electromagnetic principles, certainly by means of an adequate length of wave on different levels. In this manner the elongation of the wave would be the expression of the higher organizing (flight towards infra-red radiation). In this manner the spectral apparition of life is being widened as an expression of specialization as well as integration.c) The semiconductors show also a surface condensation of the charges which represents the electrostasis in biological systems. Likewise this evolutional direction ought to be marked as a consequence of the differentiation of the system. This evolutional role of electrostasis has been developed by the author in another publication.d) The biophysical evolution conduced in result to the generating of high- -efficient laser of small power, which works on the base of organic semiconductors. The biological laser puts to its use the pumping of all kinds, not only optic pumping, but also the chemical, gravitational, electric, magnetic, ones. The utilization of the chelating properties of some chemical compounds to the production of the technical laser has been also taken into account in the biological laser, as chelating properties of the porphyrins (chlorophyll, heme). The author develops broadly the foundations of the biological laser, without excepting the inner pumping, excepted the heterogenic one. The information inside the biological system occurs among others on the basis of the magnetohydrodynamic wave, taking into account the paramagnetic resonance of the biopolymers as well as of the tissues. The evolution of life is the development of laser small power, which works on organic semiconductors with the efficiency of 100%.The outline of the electromagnetic theory of life gives new perspectives tc the genetieal code, which is read the modulator DNA, to the morphogenesis, where the carrier wave transmits informations for biological levels of different ranges. The holographic record of memory in the cerebral cells is only one the manifestations of the function of the biological laser. Wheres the spectogram of the biological system with characterization of typical lines of species has real foundations. The author proves that the essence of life is of electromagnetic nature.